Ch.

3 Truss Equations
Chapter 3
Development of
Truss Equations

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

3.1. Definition of the Stiffness Matrix

We will

consider now the derivation of the stiffness matrix for the

linear-elastic, constant-cross-sectional area (prismatic) bar element
shown in Figure 3-1.

y
2

x , u

d2 x , f2 x

1
T

d1x , f1x

Figure 3-1 Bar subjected to tensile forces T; positive nodal displacements and forces
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

The bar element is assumed to have constant cross-sectional area A,

modulus elasticity E, and initial length L. The nodal d.o.f are local axial
displacements (longitudinal displacements directed along the length of the
bar).
From Hooke' s law and the strain/displacement relationship, we have

E
(a )
du

(b)
dx
From force equilibrium, we have
A x T constant
(c )
for no distributed load acting on the bar. Using Eq. (b) in (a ) and then
(a ) in (c) and differentiating with respect to x , we obtain
d
du
(d )
AE 0
dx
dx
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

The following assumptions are used in deriving the bar elements stiffness
matrix:
1. The bar cannot sustain shear force; that is f1 y 0 and f2 y 0.

2. Any effect of transvers e displaceme nt is ignored.

3. Hooke' s law applies; that is, axial stress x is related to axial strain
x by x E x .
The steps previously outlined in Chapter 1 are now used to derive the
stiffness matrix for bar element.

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Step

1 Select Element Type

Represent the bar by labeling nodes at each end and in general by

labeling the element number (see Figure 3-1).
Step

2 Select a Displacement Functions

Assume a linear displacement variation along the local axis of the bar
because a linear function with specified endpointshas a unique path.

u a1 a2 x

(3.1.1)

with the total number of coefficients ai always equal to the total

number of d.o.f associated with the element. Using the same procedure
as in Section 2.2 for the spring element, we express Eq. (3.1.1) as

d2 x d1x
x d1x
u

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(3.1.2)
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

or in matrix form, Eq. (3.1.2) becomes
d1x
u N1 N 2

d 2 x
with shape functions given by
x
x
N1 1
and N 2
L
L

(3.1.3)

(3.1.4)

The linear displacement function plotted over the length of the bar
element os shown in Figure 3-2. The bar is shown with the same
orientation as in Figure 3-1.

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

d2 x

y
u
2
d1x
T

L
1

x
Figure 3-2 Linear displacement plotted over the length of the element

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Step

3 Define the Strain-displacement and Stress-strain

Relationships
The strain-displacement relationship is.

du d2 x d1x
x

dx
L

(3.1.5)

where, Eqs. (3.1.3) and (3.1.4) have been used to obtain Eq. (3.1.5),
and the stress/str ain relationsh ip is

x E x

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(3.1.6)

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Step

4 Derive the Element Matrix and Equations

From elementary mechanics, we have

T A x
(3.1.7)
Using Eqs. (3.1.5) and (3.1.6) in Eq. (3.1.7), we obtain
d2 x d1x

T AE
(3.1.8)

Also, by the nodal force sign convention of Figure 3 - 1,

f T
(3.1.9)
1x

or, by using Eq. (3.1.8), Eq. (3.1.9) becomes

f AE d d
(3.1.10)
1x
1x
2x
L

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Similarly,

f2 x T

(3.1.11)

or, by using Eq. (3.1.8), Eq. (3.1.11) becomes

f AE d d
(3.1.12)
2x
2x
1x
L
Expressing Eqs. (3.1.10) and (3.1.12) together in matrix form, we have
f1x
AE 1 1 d1x
(3.1.13)

L 1 1 d 2 x
f 2 x
Now, because f k d , we have, from Eq. (3.1.3)
k AE 1 1
(3.1.14)

L 1 1
Eq. (3.1.14) represents the stiffness matrix for a truss or bar element.
In Eq. (3.1.14), AE L for a bar element is analogous to the spring
constant k for a spring element.

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Step

5 Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Total/

Global Equations
Assemble the global stiffness and forces vectors and global equations
using the direct stiffness method described in Chapter 2 can still be
adopted in this case.The method applies for structures composedd of
more than one element such that
N

K K k
e 1

(e)

and

F F f (e)

(3.1.15)

e 1

where now all local element stiffness matrices k must be transform ed

to global element stiffness matrices k before the ditrect method is
applied as indicated by Eq. (3.1.15). (This concept of coordinate
and stiffness matrix tra nsformatio ns is described in Sections 3.3
and 3.4).
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Step

6 Solve for the Nodal Displacements

Determine the displacement by imposing boundary conditions and
simultaneously solving a system of equations, F = K d.

Step

7 Solve for the Element Forces

Finaly, determine the strains and stress in each element by backsubstitution of the displacement into equations similar to Eqs. (3.1.5)
and (3.1.6).

Example 3.1

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

3.2. Selecting Approximation Functions for Displacement

Consider the following guidelines, as they relate to the one-dimensional
bar element, when selecting a displacement function. Further discussion
will be provided in Chapter 4 (for the beam element).
k
1. Common approximation functions (AF) are usually polynomials
such as that given by Eq. (3.1.1) or equivalently by Eq. (3.1.3),
where the function is expressed in terms of the shape functions.
2. The AF should be continuous within the bar element. The simple
linear function of Eq. (3.1.1) certainly is continuous within the
element.
3. The AF should provide interelement continuity for all d.o.f at
each node for discrete line elements, and along common boundary
lines and surfaces for two- and three-dimensional elements.
2

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

For the bar element, we must ensure that nodes common to two or
more elements remain common to the these elements upon
deformation and thus prevent overlaps or voids between elements.
For the two-bar structure (Figure 3-3), the linear function for
displacement within each element will ensure that elements 1 and 2
remain connected; that is, the displacement at node 2 for element 1
will equal the displacement at the same node 2 for element 2. The
linear function is then called a conforming (or compatible) function
for the bar element because it ensure both the satisfaction of
continuity between adjacent elements and of continuity within the
element.
1

1
L

Figure 3-3 Interelement continuity of a two-bar structure

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

4. The approximation function should allow for rigid-body motion
displacement and for a state of constant strain within the element. The
1D displacement function, Eq. (3.1.1), satisfies these criteria because
a1 term allows for rigid-body motion and the a2 x term allows for
constant strain since x du dx a2 is a constant. (This state of
constant strain in the element can, if fact, occur if elements are chosen
small enough).
The simple polynomial Eq. (3.1.1) satisfying this fourth guidelines is
said to be complete for the bar element. The completeness of a
function is a necessary condition for convergence to the exact answer,
for instant, for displacement and stresses.
The idea that the interpolation (approximation) function must allow for a
rigid-body displacement means that the function must be capable of
yielding a constant value (say, a1), because such a value can, in fact, occur.
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15

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Therefore, we must consider t he case
u a1
or
a d d
1

1x

2x

(3.2.1)
(3.2.2)

Using Eq. (3.2.2) in Eq. (3.1.3), we have

u N1d1x N 2 d2 x ( N1 N 2 )a1

(3.2.3)

From Eqs. (3.2.1) and (3.2.3), we then have

u a1 ( N1 N 2 ) a1

(3.2.4)

Therefore, by Eq. (3.2.4), we obtain

N1 N 2 1

(3.2.5)

Thus, Eq. (3.2.5) shows that the displaceme nt interpolat ion functions must add
to unity at every point with in the element so that u will yield a constant v alue
when a rigid - body displaceme nt occurs.
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

3.3 Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimension

In many problem it is convenient to introduce both local and global

coordinates. Local coordinates are always chosen to conveniently
represent the individual element. Global coordinates are chosen to be
convenient for the whole structures.
Given the nodal displacement of an element, represented by the
vector d in Figure 3-4, we want to relate the components of this
vector in one coordinate system to components in another.
y
y

dy

d y

d x

j
j

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dx

Figure 3-4
General displacement vector d
17

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

For general purposes, we will assume that d is not coincident with

neither the local nor the global axes. In this case, we want to relate
global displacement components to local ones.

In doing that, we will develop a transformation matrix that will

subsequently be used to develop the global stiffness matrix for a bar
element.

From figure 3 - 4, we have the following relation

d d i d j d i d j
x

(3.3.1)

where i and j are unit vecto rs in the x and y directions ; i and j are unit
vectors in x and y directions . And can be found that

d x
C S dx
C cos ; S sin
(3.3.2)

d y
S C d y
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Eq. (3.3.2) relates the global displaceme nt d to the local displaceme nt d . The matrix
C
S

is called the transforma tion or rotation matrix .

It can be derived that d x C d x S d y ; hence

d1x
C

0
d

2
x

0 C

or d T*d
C
0

where T*

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d1x

0 d1 y

S d 2 x
d 2 y

(3.3.3)

(3.3.4)

(3.3.5)
S

0 C

(3.3.6)

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Similarly, because forces transform in the same manner as displaceme nt, we can write

f1x
C

0
f2x
or

f T*f

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0 C

f1x

0 f1 y

S f 2 x
f 2 y

(3.3.7)

(3.3.8)

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

3.4. Element Stiffness Matrix in Global Coordinates

We will now use the transformation relationship Eq. (3.3.16) to obtain
the global stiffness matrix for a bar element. We need the global
stiffness matrix of each element to assemble the global stiffness matrix
of the structure. We have shown in Eq. (3.1.13) that for a bar element in
the local coordinate system,
f1x
AE 1 1

1 1
L
f 2 x

d1x

d 2 x

(3.4.1)

or
f k d

(3.4.2)

We now want to relate the global element nodal forces f to the global
nodal displacement d for a bar element arbitrarily oriented with respect
to the global axes as was shown in Figure 3-1.
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

The relationsh ip between f and d will yield the global stiffness matrix k
of the element such that
f1x

1y

f
2x

f 2 y

d1x

d1 y

d2x

(3.4.3)

d 2 y

or
f kd

(3.4.4)

We observe from Eq. (3.4.3) that a total of four components of force

and four of displacement arise when global coordinates are used (see
figure 3.5).
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

y

d2 y , f2 y

A, E , L

d2x , f2x

d1 y , f1 y

d1x , f1x

Figure 3-5 Bar element in global coordintase

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Using Eq. (3.3.4)

or

d Td

where

d1x
C

S
d1 y

0
d2x

d2 y
0

C
S
T
0

0
0
C
S

0
0
S

d1x
d
1y

d
2x
d 2 y

(3.4.5)

(3.4.6)
S
C
0
0

Similarly, we can write

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S
C
0
0

0
0
C
S

0
0
S

f Tf

(3.4.7)

(3.4.8)

24

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Now let us expand k to 4 4 matriks using Eq. (3.3.4)

f1x
1 0 1 0 d1x

AE 0 0 0 0 d1 y
f1 y


L 1 0 1 0 d 2 x
f2 x

f2 y
0 0 0 0 d 2 y

(3.4.9)

Subsitutin g Eq. (3.4.6) and (3.4.8) into (3.4.2), we obtain

Tf kTd

(3.4.10)

Premultipl ying Eq. (3.4.10) by T 1 , we obtain

1
f T kTd

(3.4.11)

where T 1 is inverse of T. It can be shown that

T 1 TT

(3.4.12)

where TT is the transpose of T.

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Substituti ng Eq. (3.4.12) into Eq. (3.4.11), we obtain.
f T T k Td

(3.4.13)
Equating Eqs. (3.4.4) and Eq. (3.4.13), we obtain the global stiffness matrix
for 2D truss element as
k T T k T
(3.4.14)
which gives k in explisit form as
C2

AE CS
k
L C2

CS

CS
S2
CS
S2

C2
CS
C2
CS

CS

S2
CS

2
S

(3.4.15)

Finally, the equiation of the truss or bar element in global coordinate system
can be written as

f1x

f
AE
1y

f
L
2x

f 2 y

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C2
CS
C2
CS

CS
S2
CS
S2

C2
CS
C2
CS

CS

S2
CS

S 2

d1x
d
1y

d
2
x

d 2 y

(3.4.16)

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Now, since the trial displaceme nt functiom Eq. (3.1.1) was assumed piecewise continuous element by element, the stiffness matrix for each element can be summed
using the direct stiffness method to obtain.
N

k (e) K

(3.4.17)

e 1

where K is the total stiffness matrix and N is the total number of elements.
Similarly, each element global nodal force matrix can be summed such that
N

f (e) F

(3.4.18)

e 1

K is now related the global nodal force F and the global nodal displaceme nt d for
the whole structure by
F Kd

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(3.4.19)

27

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

3.5. Computational of Stress for a Bar in x-y Plane

We will now consider the determination of the stress in a bar element.
For a bar, the local forces are related to the local displacement by Eq.
(3.1.13). This equation is repeated here for convenience.
f1x
AE 1 1 d1x
(3.5.1)

L 1 1 d 2 x
f 2 x
The usual definition of axial tensile stress is
f2 x

(3.5.2)
A
where f2 x is used because it pulls on the bar as shown in Figure 3 - 7.
From Eq. 3.5.1 we have

f AE 1 1 d1x
(3.5.3)
2x

L
d 2 x

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

f2 x

f1x

Figure 3-6 Basic bar element with positive nodal forces

Therefore, combining Eqs. (3.5.2) and (3.5.3) yields

E
1 1 d
L
Now, using Eq. (3.4.7), we obtain
E
1 1 T*d
L
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(3.5.4)

(3.5.5)
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Equation (3.5.5) can be expressed in similar form as

C' d
where, using Eq. (3.4.8),
C S 0 0
E
C' 1 1

0
0
C
S
L

After multiplyin g the matrix in Eq. (3.5.7), we have

E
C' C S C S
L

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(3.5.6)

(3.5.7)

(3.5.8)

30

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

3.6. Solution of a Plane Truss

We will now illustrate the use of equations developed in Section 3.4

qnd 3.5, along with the direct stiffness method of assembling the total
matrix and equatons, to solve the following plane truss example
problem.
A plane truss is a structure composed of bar elements all lying in a
common plane that connected together by frictionless pins. The plane
truss also must have loads acting only in common plane.

EXAMPLE 3.5

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

3.7. Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix

for a Bar in Three-Dimensional Space

We will now derive the tranformation matrix for a bar element in 3-D
space as shown in Figure 3-7.

Figure 3-7 Bar in 3-D space

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32

Ch.Let 3
Truss
Equations
the node 1 and 2 have the coordinate s ( x , y , z ) and

( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) respective ly.
Also, let x , y , and z be the angles measured from global x, y, and z axes,
respective ly, to the local axis x. Here x directed along the element from node 1 to
node 2. We must determine T* such that d T*d. We begin the derivation of T*
1

by considerin g the vector d d expressed in 3 - D as

d i d j d k d i d j d k

(3.7.1)

Taking the dot product of Eq. (3.7.1) with i , we have

d x 0 0 d x(i i ) d y (i j) d z (i k )

(3.7.2)

and, by definition of the dot product,

i i x2 x1 C
x
L
i j y2 y1 C
y
L
i k z 2 z1 C
z
L
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(3.7.3)

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

where L ( x x ) ( y y ) ( z z )
2

C z cos z
(3.7.4)
Here C x , C y , and C z are the projection s of i on i, j, and k , respective ly.

and

C x cos x

C y cos y

Therefore, using Eqs. (3.7.3) in Eq. (3.7.2), we have

d C d C d C d
x

(3.7.5)

For a vector in space directed along the x axis, Eq. (3.7.5) gives the
components of that vect or in the global x, y, and z directions .
Now using Eq. (3.7.5), d T*d can be written in explicit form as

d 1x
Cx

d 2 x
0

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Cy

Cz

Cx

Cy

d1x
d
1y

d1z

Cz d 2 x
d2 y

d 2 z
0

(3.7.6)

34

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

where

Cx
T
0

Cy

Cz

Cx

Cy

0
C z

(3.7.7)

is the transform ation matrix, which enables the local displaceme nt matrix d to be
expressed in terms of displaceme nt components in the global coordinate system.
We have shown in Section 3.4 that the global stiffness matrix is given in general by
k TT k T. This equation w ill now be used to express the general form of the stiffness
matrix of a bar arbitrary oriented in space. In general, we must expand the transform ation
matrix in a manner analogous to that done in expanding T* to T in Section 3.4. However,
the same result wil l be obtained here by simply using T* , defined by Eq. (3.7.7), in place
of T. Then k is obtained using the equation k (T* ) T k T* as follows :

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Ch.
3 Truss Equations
where
Cx
C
y
Cz

0
0

Simplifying

0
0
0 AE 1 1 C x C y C z 0

0
0 C x C y C z
0 C x L 1 1 0
0 Cy

0 C z
Eq. (3.7.8), we obtain the explicit form of k as

C x2

AE
k

C xC y

C xC z

C x2

C xC y

C xC z

C y2

C yCz

C xC y

C y2

C z2

C xC z
C x2

C yCz
C xC y

C yC z

(3.7.8)

C z2
(3.7.9)

C xC z

C y2
C yCz

2
C z
Symetry
Equation (3.7.9) is the basic form of the stiffness matrix for a bar element in 3 - D space.
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

3.8. Potential Energy Approach

We now present the principle of minimum potential energy (POMPE) to
derive the bar element equations. Recall from Section 2.6 that the total
PE, p was defined as the sum of the internal strain energy U and the
potential energy of the external forces as
p U

(3.8.1)

To evaluate the strain energy for a bar, we consider only the work done
by the internal forces during deformation. Because we are dealing with
a 1-D bar, the internal force doing work is given in Figure 3-8 as x(y)
(z), due only to normal stress x. The displacement of the x face of
element is x(x); the displacement of x + x face is x(x + dx). The
change in displacement is then xdx, where dx is differential change in
strain occuring over element x.

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Figure 3-8 Internal force in a 1-D bar

The differenti al internal work (or strain energy) dU is the internal force multiplied by
the displaceme nt through which the force moves, given by
F dx
dU x ( y )( z )( x )d x

(3.8.2)

Rearrangin g and letting the volume of the element approach zero, we obtain, from
Eq. (3.8.2).
dU x d x dV
(3.8.3)
For the whole bar, we the have

U
V

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d x dV

(3.8.4)
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Now, for a linear-elastic (Hookes law) material as shown in Figure 3-9,

we see that x = Ex. Hence, substituting this relationship into Eq. (3.8.4),
integrating with respect to x, and then substituting x for Ex, we have

1
U x x dV
2 V

(3.8.5)

as the expression for the strain energy for 1 - D stress.

Figure 3-9 Linear-elastic (Hookes law) material

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

The PE of the external forces, being opposite in sign from the external
work expression because the PE of external forces is lost when the work
is done by the external forces, is given by
M

X budV Tx udS fix dix

i
1
S1

V

nodal force
body forec

(3.8.6)

surface loading

where the first, second, and third terms on the right side of Eq. (3.8.6)
represent the PE of (1) body force X (in units of force per unit
b

volume), (2) surface loading Tx (in units of force per unit surface area),
and (3) nodal concentrat ed forces f .
ix

The forces X b , Tx , and fix are considered to act in the local x direction
of the bar as shown in Figure 3 - 10.
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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

In Eq. (3.8.5) and (3.8.6), V is the volume of the body

and S1 is the part of the surface S on which surface
loading acts. For a bar element with two nodes and one
d.o.f per node, M = 2.
We are now ready to describe the FE formulation of the
bar element equations using th POMPE.

Figure 3-10
General forces acting
on a 1-D bar
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The FE process seeks a minimum in the PE within the

constraint of an assumed displacement pattern within
each element. The greater the number of d.o.f.
associated with the element, the more closely will the
solution approximate the true one and ensure complete
equilibrium. An approximate FE solution using the
stiffness method will always provide an approximation
value of PE greater than or equal to the correct one.
41

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

The method also results in a structure behavior that is predicted to be

physically stiffer than, or at best to have the same stiffness as, the actual
one. This is explained by the fact that structure model is allowed to
displaced only into shapes defined by the terms of the assumed
displacement field within each element of the structure. The correct shape
is ussually only approximated by the assumed field, although the correct
shape can be the same as the assumed field. The assumed field effectively
constraints the structure from deforming in its natural manner, This
constraint effect stiffens the predicted behavior of the structure.
Apply the following steps when using the POMPE to derive the FE
equations.
1. Formulate an expression for the total PE.
2. Assume the displacement pattern to vary with a finite set of
undetermined parameters (nodal displacements).
3. Obtain a set of simultaneous equations minimizing the total PE with
respect to these nodal displacements.

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

The resulting equations are the approximate (or possibly exact)

equilibrium equations whose solution for the nodal parameters seeks to
minimize the PE when back-substitued into the PE expression. The
proceeding three steps will now followed to derive the bar element
equations and stiffness matrix.
Consider the bar element of length L, with constant cross-sectional area A,
shown in Figure 3-10. Using Eqs. (3.8.5) and (3.8.6), the total PE, Eq.
(3.8.1), becomes.
L

A
p x x dx f1x d1x f2 x d2 x uTx dS uX b dV
(3.8.7)
20
S
V
since A is contant and variables x and x at most vary with x.

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

From Eqs. (3.1.3) and (3.1.4), we have the axial displaceme nt function
expressed in terms of the shape functions and nodal displaceme nt by
u N d
(3.8.8)

where

x
N 1
L

x
L

(3.8.9)

and

d 1x
d2 x

(3.8.10)

Then, using the strain/dis placement relationsh ip x du dx , the axial

strain can be written as
1 1
x
d
(3.8.11)

L L

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44

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

or

x B d

(3.8.12)

where we define

1
B
L

1
L

(3.8.13)

The axial stress/str ain relationsh ip is given by

x D x
where

(3.8.14)

D E

(3.8.15)
for the 1 - D stress/str ain relationsh ip and E is the modulus of elasticity .
Now, by Eq. (3.8.12), we can express Eq. (3.8.14) as

x D B d

MS4011 FEM

(3.8.16)
45

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Usin g Eq. (3.8.7) expressed in matrix notation form, we have the total
PE given by

T
A
T
T
T

p x x dx d P u T x dS u X b dV (3.8.17)
20
S
V
where P now represents the concentrat ed nodal loads and where in general
both x and x are column matrices. For proper matrix multiplica tion we must
place the transpose on . Similarly, u and T in general are column

matrices, so for proper matrix multiplica tion u is transpose d in Eq. (3.8.17).

Using Eqs. (3.8.11), (3.8.12), and (3.8.16) in Eq. (3.8.17), we obtain
L

A
p d
20

P d N T dS

B D B d dx d
T

T
T
d N X b dV

(3.8.18)

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46

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

In Eq. (3.8.18), p is seen to be a function of {d }; that is, p p (d1x , d2 x ).

However, [ B ] adn [ D], Eqs. (3.8.13) and (3.8.15), and the nodal d.o.f d and d
1x

2x

are not functions of x. Therefore, integratin g Eq. (3.8.18) with respect to x yields
T
AL T T T

p
d B D B d d f
(3.8.19)
2
where
T
T
f P N T dS N X dV
(3.8.20)

From Eq. (3.8.20), we observe three separate types of load contributi ons from
body forces, surface tractions , and concentrat ed nodal forces. We define these
surface tractions and body - force vectors as
T
f N T dS
(3.8.20a )

f N X dV
s

(3.8.20b)

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Minimizing of p with respect to each nodal displaceme nt requires that

p
0

and

1x

p
0

(3.8.21)

2x

Now we explicitly evaluate p given by Eq. (3.8.19) to apply Eq. (3.8.21).

We define the following for convenienc e :

T
T
T

U d B D B d
(3.8.22)
Using Eqs. (3.8.10), (3.8.13), and (3.8.15) in Eq. (3.8.22) yields
1

L
*
1
1
U d1x d2 x 1 E L L 1x
(3.8.23)
d2 x
L
Simplifyin g Eq. (3.8.23), we obtain
E
U * 2 d12x 2d1x d2 x d22x
(3.8.24)
L
*

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48

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

f is

Also, the explicit expression for d

d f d1x f1x d2 x f 2 x
(3.8.25)
Therefore, using Eqs. (3.8.24) and (3.8.25) in Eq. (3.8.19) and the applying
Eqs. (3.8.21), we obtain
p AL E

2
d

2
d

f
1
x
2
x
1x
2

2
L
d

1x

and

(3.8.26)

p AL E
2d f 0

2
d
1x
2x
2x
2

2
L
d 2 x

In matrix form, we express Eq. (3.8.26) yields

p AE 1 - 1 d1x f1x
0

L - 1 1 d2 x f2 x
d
0

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(3.8.27)

49

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

or since

f k d, we have the stiffness

AE 1 - 1

k L - 1 1

matrix for the bar element as

(3.8.28)

Finally, instead of the cumbersome process of explicitly evaluating p , we can

use the matrix differenti ation and apply it directly t o Eq. (3.8.19) to obtain
p
T
AL B D B d f 0
(3.8.29)
d1x
where D D has been used in writtin g Eq. (3.8.29). The result of the
T
evaluation of AL B D B is then equal to k given by Eq. (3.2.28).

Throughout this text, we will use this matrix differenti ation concept, which
greatly simplifies the task of evaluating k .

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

3.9. Galerkins Residual Method

We have develop the bar FE equations by the direct method in Section
3.1 and by the PE method (one of number of variation methods) in
Section 3.8.
In fields other than structural/solids mechanics, it is quite probable that
a variational principle, analogous to the principle of minimum PE, for
instance, may not be known or even exist. In some flow problems in
fluid mechanics and in mass transport problems, we often have the
differential equations and BC available.
However, the FE method can still be applied.
The weighted residual method (WRM) applied directly to the
differential equation can be used to develop the FE equations.
In this section, we describe Galerkins residual method (GRM) in
general and apply it to the bar element.

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Ch. 3 Truss Equations

This development provides the basis for later applications of GRM to the
beam element in Chapter 4 and to the non-structural problems.
There are a number of other WRM. Among these are collocation, subdomain method, least square, and least square collocation. (For more
on these methods, see Reference [4]). However, since GRM is more well
known than the other WRM, it is the only one described in this text.
In WRM, a trial or approximate function is chosen to approximate the
independent variable, such as a displacement or a temperature, in a
problem defined by a differential equation. This trail function will not, in
general, satisfy the governing differential equation. Thus, the substitution
of the trail function into the differential equation result in a residual over
the whole region of the problem as follows
R dV minimum

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(3.9.1)
52

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

In the WRM, we require that a weighted value of the residual be a

minimum over the whole region. The weighting functions allow the
weighted integral of residuals to go to zero. Denoting the weighting
function by W, the general form of the weighted residual integral is

WR dV minimum

(3.9.2)

Using GRM, we chose the interpolation function, such as Eq. (3.1.3), in

terms of Ni shape functions for the independent variable in the
differential equation. In general, this substitution yields the residual R0.
By the Galerkin criterion, the shape functions are chosen to play the role
of the weighting functions W. Thus, for each i we have.
RN

dV 0 (i 1,2,3, , n)

(3.9.3)

Eq. (3.9.3) results in total of n equations.

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53

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Equation (3.9.3) applies to points within the region of a body without

reference to BC such as specified applied loads or displacement.
To obtain BC, we apply integration by parts to Eq. (3.9.3), which yields
integrals applicable for the region and its boundary.

Bar Element Formulation

We now use GRM to formulate the bar element stiffness equations. We
begin with the basic element differential equation, without distributed
load, derived in Section 3.1 (Eq. (d) as

d
du
( AE ) 0
dx
dx

(3.9.4)

where constant A and E are now assumed.

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54

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

The residual R is now defined to be Eq. (3.9.4). Applying Galerkins

criterion, Eq. (3.9.3), to Eq. (3.9.4), we have
L
d
du
(3.9.5)
dx ( AE dx ) N i dx 0 (i 1,2)
0
We now apply integratio n by parts to Eq. (3.9.5). Integratio n by parts
is given in general by

u dv uv v du

(3.9.6)

where u and v are simply var iables in the general equation. Letting
dN i
u Ni
du
dx
dx
(3.9.7)

d
du
du
dv ( AE )dx
v AE
dx
dx
dx
in Eq. (3.9.5) and integratin g by parts according to Eq. (3.9.6),
Eq. (3.9.5) becomes
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55

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

L

L
du
du dN i
N i AE
AE
dx 0
dx 0 0
dx dx

(3.9.8)

where the integratio n by parts introduces the boundary conditions .

Recall that, because u N d , we have

du dN1
dN 2

d 1x
d2x
dx
dx
dx
or using Eqs. (3.1.4) for N1 and N 2 , we obtain
du 1

dx L

1
L

(3.9.9)

d1x

d 2 x

(3.9.10)

Using Eq. (3.9.10) in Eq. (3.9.8), we then express Eq. (3.9.8) as

L

dN i
AE

0 dx
MS4011 FEM

1
L

1
L

d1x
du

dx
N iAE

dx
d 2 x

(3.9.11)
0
56

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Equation (3.9.11) is really 2 equations (one for N i N1 and one for N i N 2 ).

First, using the weighting function N i N1 , we have
L

dN1
AE
dx
0

1
L

Substituti ng for
L

1
AE
L
0

d 1x
1
du

dx

N1 AE

L
dx
d 2 x

(3.9.12)
0

dN1
, we obtain
dx

d 1 x
1
dx

L
d 2 x

f1 x

(3.9.13)

where f1x AE du dx because N1 1 at x 0 and N1 0 at x L.

Evaluating Eq. (3.9.13) yields

AE
d 1x d2 x f1x
L
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(3.9.14)
57

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Similarly, using N i N 2 , we obtain
L

1
AE
L
0

1
L

1
L

d 1x
du

dx
N 2 AE

dx
d 2 x

(3.9.15)
0

Simplifyin g Eq. (3.9.15) yields

AE
d 2 x d1x f2 x
L

(3.9.16)

where f 2 x AE (du dx ) because N 2 1 at x L and N 2 0 at x 0.

Equations (3.9.14) and (3.9.16) can be written in matrix form as
f1x
AE 1 1 d1x
(3.9.17)

L 1 1 d 2 x
f 2 x
Eq. (3.9.17) then seen to be the same as Eqs. (3.1.13) and (3.8.27) derived,
respective ly, by the direct and variation al methods.
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58

Ch. 3 Truss Equations

Reference:
1. Logan, D.L., 1992, A First Course in the Finite Element
Method, PWS-KENT Publishing Co., Boston.
2. Imbert, J.F.,1984, Analyse des Structures par Elements
Finis, 2nd Ed., Cepadues.
3. Zienkiewics, O.C., 1977, The Finite Eelement Method, 3rd
ed., McGraw-Hill, London.
4. Finlayson, B.A., 1972, The Method of Weighted
Residuals and Variational Principles, Academic Press,
New York.

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59