The Reasons for Seasons

Edward M. Murphy
Space Science for Teachers
2005

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Day Night Cycle

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Rotation vs. Revolution
• Rotation is the spin of an object
about its axis.
– The Earth rotates once a day (once
every 24 hours).
• Revolution is the orbit of one
object around another.
– The Earth revolves around the Sun
every 365.26 days.
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The Constellations on the
Ecliptic
• As the Earth revolves about the Sun,
the Sun appears to move through a
set of constellations called the
zodiac.
• The path of the Sun through the sky
is called the ecliptic.
• The sun travels through a set of
“12” constellations (13 actually) that
are called the zodiac.
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Tilt of the Earth’s Axis
• The axis around which the Earth
rotates is tilted by 23.5 degrees
with respect to the ecliptic.

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Obliquity of the Ecliptic

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Obliquity of the Ecliptic

June December

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Tilt of
the
Earth’s
Axis

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Equinoxes and Solstices
• The Vernal (Spring) Equinox (about March
21): The location where the Sun crosses the
equator when going from south of the
equator to north of the equator.
– Position of the Sun: R.A. 0h, Dec 0o
• The Summer Solstice (about June 21): The
location where the Sun is at its furthest
north.
– Position of the Sun: R.A. 6h, Dec +23.5o

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Equinoxes and Solstices
• The Autumnal (Fall) Equinox (about
September 21): Where the Sun crosses
the equator when going from north to
south.
– Position of the Sun: R.A. 12h, Dec 0o
• The Winter Solstice (about December
21): The location where the Sun is at its
furthest south.
– Position of the Sun: R.A. 18h, Dec –23.5o
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Motion on the Ecliptic

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Tropics

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The Annual Path of the
Sun
• On the summer solstice:
– the Sun will appear directly overhead to
someone at 23.5 degrees north latitude.
This latitude is called the Tropic of Cancer.
– The Sun does not set for people within 23.5
degrees of the North pole (above the Artic
circle)
– The Sun does not rise for people within 23.5
degrees of the South pole (below the
Antarctic Circle).
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Earth on June 21

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Standing on the North Pole

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Midnight Sun

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Standing on the Tropic of
Cancer

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The Annual Path of the
Sun
• On the autumnal equinox:
– The Sun will appear directly overhead to
someone on the equator at 0 degress
latitude.
– The Sun sets at the North Pole, ending 6
straight months of day and beginning 6
straight months of night.
– The Sun rises at the South Pole ending 6
straight months of night and beginning 6
straight months of day.
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Standing on the Equator

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The Annual Path of the
Sun
• On the winter solstice:
– The Sun will appear directly overhead to
someone at 23.5 degress south latitude, the
Tropic of Capricorn.
– The Sun does not set for people within 23.5
degrees of the South Pole (below the
Antarctic Circle)
– The Sun does not rise for people within 23.5
degrees of the North Pole (above the Arctic
Circle)
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Earth on December 21

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The Annual Path of the
Sun
• On the vernal equinox:
– The Sun will appear directly overhead to
someone on the equator at 0 degress
latitude.
– The Sun rises at the North Pole, ending 6
straight months of night and beginning 6
straight months of day.
– The Sun sets at the South Pole ending 6
straight months of day and beginning 6
straight months of night.
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Seasons Misconception
• Many people carry the misconception that the
seasons are due to the distance of the Earth
from the Sun. However, consider the following
facts:
– The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is nearly a perfect
circle. The Earth is slightly closer to the Sun in
January and farther from the Sun in July.
• Perihelion (closest to the Sun) is around January 3 when
Earth is about 91,405,436 miles from the Sun.
• Aphelion (farthest from the Sun) is around July 4 when Earth
is about 94,511,989 miles from the Sun.

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Seasons Misconception
– While it is winter in the Northern
hemisphere it is summer in the
Southern hemisphere. If the seasons
were due to our distance from the
Sun both hemispheres would have
the same seasons at the same time.

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Orbit of the Earth

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The Seasons

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The Seasons
• In fact, the seasons are due to the tilt of the
Earth’s axis. Consider what happens on
June 21 when the northern hemisphere of
the Earth is tilted toward the Sun:
• The sunlight strikes the ground more
vertically than in December. The light is
spread out over less ground and heats the
ground better.
• The Sun is above the horizon for a longer
period of time.

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Solar Illumination

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Earth on June 22

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Earth on December 22

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The Length of the Day
• A day is defined as the time that it
takes the Earth to rotate on its axis.
• However, there is more than one way
to define a day:
– A sidereal day is the time that it takes for
the Earth to rotate with respect to the
distant stars.
– A solar day is the time that it takes to
rotate with respect to the Sun.

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The Length of the Day
• A solar day is slightly longer than a
sidereal day.
– A sidereal day is 23h 56m 4.091s.
• We set our watches according to
the solar day.
• Astronomers use sidereal time
because we are mostly interested
in distant celestial objects.
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Sidereal Time

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Sidereal Time

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A.M. and P.M.
• At midday, the Sun is on your
meridian.
– This occurs close to, or at, noon.
– A.M. comes from ante meridiem
(before midday)
– P.M. comes from post meridiem (after
midday)

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Apparent Solar Time
• Apparent solar time is the time
measured with respect to the actual
position of the Sun.
– At noon, the Sun would be exactly on the
meridian.
– 1 P.M. would be exactly one hour after the
Sun was on the meridian.
– 9 A.M. would be exactly 3 hours before the
Sun was on the meridian.
– The apparent solar time depends on your
longitude.
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Day Night Cycle

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Apparent Solar Time
– The length of an apparent solar day varies
throughout the year.
• Although the rotation of Earth is fairly
constant, the revolution speed of Earth in orbit
around the Sun is not.
– Kepler’s Second Law tells us that Earth moves faster
in January when it is close to the Sun and slower in
July when it is further from the Sun.
– In one day in January, Earth must rotate a little bit
more than one day in July in order to bring the Sun
back to the meridian because Earth has moved
further in its orbit during that one day.

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Sidereal Time

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Mean Solar Time
– Therefore, the length of an apparent
solar day is variable.
– Rather than constantly reseting our
watches as the length of a solar day
varies, we keep time using mean solar
time.
• A mean solar day is the average length of a
solar day during the year.
• Mean solar time is the time kept by a
fictitious “Sun” moving at a uniform rate
along the equator.
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Mean Solar Time
• A sundial keeps apparent solar time and
it will differ from the time on your watch
during the course of a year.
• This means that the true Sun is not
always on the meridian at exactly noon.
– Sometimes the Sun is on the meridian before
noon and sometimes after noon.
– The difference, called the equation of time,
can be as much as 17 minutes.

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Sundial

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Apparent Solar Time
– The path of the Sun at noon during
the year makes a figure 8 shape
called the analemma.
• The north-south motion is due to the 23.5
degree tilt of the celestial sphere with
respect to the ecliptic.
• The east-west motion is primarily caused
by the varying speed of Earth in its orbit
around the Sun.

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Analemma

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Analemma

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Time Zones
• Both the mean solar time and the apparent
solar time differ with longitude.
– Imagine starting in Charlottesville at exactly noon.
– As you travel to the west, the Sun will appear
further east in the sky (i.e. lower and further from
the meridian).
– Even if you travel only a few miles west, the Sun
moves off the meridian.
– Each city would have its own time.

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Time Zones
• With the advent of rapid travel by
trains in the 19th century, it became
necessary to standardize the time
for all cities within a certain region.
• In November 1883, the railroad
companies divided the United
States into four time zones.
– Everyone in a time zone set their
clocks to the same standard time.
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Time Zones
• In 1884, an international conference was held in
Washington D.C. by 26 countries.
– The world was divided into 24 times zones, with each
zone being roughly 15 degrees wide in longitude.
– Time zones have been modified for political, social
and economic reasons.
– Since there are 24 hours in a day, and 360/15=24, the
time in each zone differs from the time in adjacent
zones by one hour.

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International Date Line
– Standard time gets earlier as you
travel to the west.
– The International Date Line line was
established in the middle of the
Pacific Ocean.
– As you go from east to west, you gain
a day as you cross the line.
– As you go from west to east, you lose
a day as you cross the line.

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Time Zones

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Daylight Saving Time
• During the late spring, summer, and early fall, we set
out clocks ahead to have an extra hour of daylight at
the end of the day.
– This change in time is called Daylight Saving Time.
– The idea of changing our clocks was first used in the United
States during World War I to conserve energy.
• Since 1986, the United States has set our clocks one
hour ahead on the first Sunday in April and one hour
behind on the last Sunday in October.
– Spring ahead, fall back.

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Precession
• The Earth not only spins like a top,
but it wobbles.
– The period of the wobble is 25,725
years.
– This wobble causes the North and
South celestial poles to move through
the sky.
– Discovered in 129 B.C by Hipparchus.

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Precession of the` Earth’s
Axis

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Precession
– The vernal equinox moves through the
constellations of the zodiac.
• Currently, the vernal equinox is in Pisces.
• It was in Aries about 2500 years ago, and the
solstices were in Cancer and Capricornus and
the autumnal equinox was in Libra (balance).
• About 4000 years ago the vernal equinox was
in Taurus (bull associated with fertility).
• In 2700 A.D., the vernal equinox moves into
the constellation of Aquarius.

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Tilt of
the
Earth’s
Axis

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Length of a Year
• It takes Earth one year to orbit the Sun
– A sidereal year is the length of time it takes
for the Earth to return to the same position
with respect to the stars. It is 365d 6h 9m
9.5s
– A tropical year is the length of time it takes
the Sun to go from one vernal equinox to
another. It is 365d 5h 48m 45.51s
– The difference is due to precession.

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