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Theorem
- is a statement that has been proven on the basis of
previously established statements such as other
theorems, axioms, or definition.
- A major landmark in the mathematical theory.
- Once a theorem is proved to be true, it can be used.
Lemma
- a proven statement used as a stepping-stone toward the
proof of another statement.
Corollary
- A result that follows immediately from a theorem.
Example
- Is not a general result but is a particular case.
Proof
- Mathematical argument intended to convince us that
a result is correct.
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Quantifiers
Consider a statement P(x) :
x5
()
x, P ( x)
or
For all x, P(x).
For every x, P(x).
For each x, P(x).
P(x), for all x.
Existential quantifier ()
There exist an x for which P(x) is true
or
For some x, P(x).
P(x), for some x.
: x, P ( x)
Example
1.
x R, x 1 ( x 1)( x x 1)
2.
x R, x x 6 0
3.
x R, x x 6 0
Proofs
- Many mathematical theorems can be expressed
symbolically in the form of
PQ
Assumption
Or
hypothesis
Conclusion
Methods of Proof ( P Q)
1. Direct Method
find a series of statements P1,P2,,Pn
verify that each of the implications below is true
P P1 , P1 P2 , P2 P3 .....Pn 1 Pn and Pn Q
Example
An integer n is defined to be even if n = 2m for some integer m.
Show that the sum of two even integers is even.
Proof
2. Contrapositive Method
may prove Q P
Example
Proposition:
If x is a real number such that
Proof
x 7 x 9, then x 1.1
3
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3. Proof by Contradiction
assume that P is true and not Q is true (Q is false)
will end up with a false statement S
Conclude that not Q must be false, i.e., Q is true
Example
Proposition:
If x is an integer and x2 is even then x is an even integer.
Proof
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4. Proof by Induction
assume that for each positive integer n,
a statement P(n) is given. If
1. P(1) is a true statement; and
2. Whenever P(k) is a true statement, then P(k+1) is also true,
then P(n) is a true statement for every n in positive integer.
Example
Prove:
1
1
1
1
n
...
1 3 3 5 5 7
(2n 1)(2n 1) 2n 1
This is a
statement
P(n)
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5. Proof by Counterexamples
Sometimes a conjectured result in mathematics is not true.
Would not be able to prove it.
Could try to disprove it.
The conjecture in the form of x, P ( x )
Take the negation: NOT (x, P ( x ))
Equivalent to:
x, NOT P ( x)
x, P ( x)
need only to find one value, say c, such that P(c) is false.
The value c is called a counterexample to the conjecture.
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Example
Let x be a real number. Disprove the statement
If x2 >9 then x >3.
Solution
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