1

Lecture 4

We saw in slide 18 lecture 3 (last session) that in an ideal TF:

2

The "almost ideal" equivalent circuit can be drawn from

the voltage and current equations:
~
I1

~ N2 ~
I1
I2
N1
~
Im

~
V1

Lm

~
I2

~ N ~
V2 2 V1
N1
N ~
~
I 2 1 I1
N2

~
V2

load

ideal transformer

almost ideal transformer

And the following:

If the iron is "ideal", then r then Lm and Im 0

The Imperfections of Real Transformers

The imperfections in a real transformer are:

Finite r i.e. non-zero Im required to set up flux in core (weve
seen this already)
Winding resistance, R1 and R2. There can be a lot of turns in a
coil
Power loss in the iron. We shall look at this later
Leakage Flux. (we see in the next slide) Some of the primary
flux does not link the secondary (and visa-versa). The flux that
doesn't is called "leakage flux".

Leakage Flux

The magnetic lines of force that go beyond their

intended path and do not serve their intended
purpose.
Some of the primary flux does not link the secondary
(and visa-versa). The flux that doesn't is called
"leakage flux".

Non-linear magnetic material

Non-linear magnetic material this means that the permeability is

not constant but varies with the magnetising current. A typical
curve is shown below
m

Saturation region

Linear region

Im

As we increase Im we eventually saturate the iron. For a given core

geometry, there is normally a maximum Im at which we operate

Development of Real TF equivalent circuit

Leakage Flux
m

I1
V1

Useful core flux

Linking secondary

l
Leakage flux
Does "no work"

The total core flux is m and the flux linking coil 1 will be:
1 N1 m N1l

Then the voltage will be by Faradays Law:

dm
dl
v1 N1

dt

N1

dt

vm vl1

There are two terms in series.

The first is vm which corresponds to the voltage caused by the rate
of change of main flux.
The other is vl1 which corresponds to the rate of change of the
leakage flux. The voltage vl1 can thus be represented in series with
the main flux coil as shown in the diagram.

The equivalent circuit

will
be:

l1

ll1

l2
ll2

I1
Vl1
V1

Vl2
Vm

N1

N2

Almost ideal transformer (no leakage flux)

We can define the primary leakage inductance as:

l1
Ll1 N1
i1

(4.1)

V2

In the same way for the secondary coil we

will have:
Flux leakage will also afflict the secondary coil. Not all
the flux produced by the secondary current will be
trying to cancel the flux produced by the primary. Some
will leak away.
We can define secondary leakage inductance:
Ll 2

l 2
N2
i2

(4.2)

V1

10

Now instead if the TF we will insert the

almost ideal TFs Equivalent Circuit we
learnt last session:
l1

~ l2 R1
I1

ll1

ll2

Vl2 V~1
Vm

N1

N2

Almost ideal transformer (no leakage flux)

~
I1
~
Im

I1
Vl1

ll1

Lm
V2

N ~
~
V2 2 V1
N1

N1 ~
~
I

~ 2 N I1'
V1
2
ideal
transformer

~
V2

11

Equivalent circuit
Inserting the equivalent circuit for the "almost ideal" transformer give the
following circuit for the real TF:
~
I1

R1

ll1

~
I1
~
Im

~
V1

Lm

ll2

R2

~
I2

N ~
~
V2 2 V1
N1

N1 ~
~
I

I1'
2
~
N2
V1

~
V2

~
VL

ZL

ideal
transformer

The "ideal transformer" box is inconvenient. It is nice to have a

circuit with standard components.
Do this by referring ALL the secondary parameters AND the load to
the primary side:

12

We replace the ideal TF with standard

components for convenience:
~
I1

R1

ll1

ll2

~
I1

N1 ~
~
I

~ 2 N I1'
V1
2

Lm

~
I2

N ~
~
V2 2 V1
N1

~
Im
~
V1

R2

ZL

~
VL

~
V2

ideal
transformer

~
I1

R1

ll1

~
I1

ll2'

R2 '

~
Im
~
V1

Lm

~
VL

ZL'

13

The secondary components are ll2, R2 and the load ZL. We refer the
secondary components to the primary by scaling them by the factor
(N1/N2)2 . Hence we have: (we studied in lecture 3)
~
I1

R1

ll1

~
I1

ll2'

R2 '

~
Im
~
V1

N12

L
Ll 2
2 l2
N2
N12

R
R2
2 2
N2

Lm

~
VL

ZL'

is the referred secondary leakage inductance

is the referred secondary resistance

(4.3)

14
N1 2

ZL
N 2
2

~ N2 ~
I 2
I1
N1

ZL

is the referred as load

is the referred secondary current. It is still the extra

current that flows in the primary when I2 flows.
(4.4)

VL = I2 ZL . Substitute values for I2 and ZL to give:

~ N1 ~
VL
VL
N2

(4.5)

is the referred load voltage (also the TF output voltage).

15

~ N2 ~
I 2
I1
N1
N1 2

ZL
N 2
2

~
I1

ll1

ZL

~
V1

Lm

~
I1

R2

~
I2

N ~
~
V2 2 V1
N1

~
V1

N ~
~
I 2 1 I1 '
N2

~
VL

~
V2

ZL

ideal
transformer

N 2 VL

N1

ll2

~
I1
~
Im

N22
N1 ~

VL I 2 Z L
I1 ' Z L
N2
N2
1

R1

R1

ll1

~
I1

ll2'

R2 '

~
Im
~
V1

~ N1 ~
VL
VL
N2

Lm

(4.5)

is the referred load voltage (also the TF output voltage).

~
VL

ZL'

16

Simplified Equivalent Circuit

Note V~1 V~1 that because of the voltage drop across Ll1 and R1.
R1

~
I1

ll1

ll2'

~
I1

~
Im
~
V1

Lm

~
V2

R2 '

ZL'

17

18

Question (cont.)

(vi) What is the impedance seen by the source?

19

Solution:

20

What is the impedance seen by the source?

N1
Z ( seen by the source )
N2

500
Z 2
12
300

21

Question (cont.)
In the previous question what will the primary leakage inductance
be if the transformer is not ideal and the primary current is 40 A
with the leakage flux of 0.1?

l1
0.1 5
Ll1 N1
500

i1
40 4

22

Question (cont.)
In the previous question draw the equivalent
circuit of the non ideal TF?
R1

~
I1
~
Im

Eg

Lm

ll1

~
I1

ll2'

R2 '

23

Now we want to understand what

Eddy Current Loss is.

We saw in slide 5 of this lecture that : ( changes)

Non-linear magnetic material

24

Non-linear magnetic material this means that the permeability is

not constant but varies with the magnetising current. A typical
curve is shown below
m

Saturation region

Linear region

Im

As we increase Im we eventually saturate the iron. For a given core

geometry, there is normally a maximum Im at which we operate

25

Eddy current loss

If you have a changing magnetic field across a conductor (or through a

conducting coil or conducting loop), currents will always flow to oppose the
changing field conductors always react against changing magnetic fields.
(Lenzs Law lecture2 slide 32)
Do not forget that the iron core is a conducting material.
Loops of current will flow in the iron (in planes perpendicular to the
changing flux), which tries to stop the varying flux flow. Called eddy
currents.
However any current to flow inside the core of TF is useless and
obstructive.

Solid steel
Large eddy currents flow in loops
around main sinusoidally changing flux

26

Eddy current loss

To solve this, transformer cores are made of thin steel
laminations with an insulating surface and stuck together to
make the core shape.

Laminated steel
Small eddy currents flow in loops within thin lamination

Eddy currents now reduced, but not eliminated. Still

cause I2 R losses.

27

Hysteresis Loop
Remember, magnetising current, Im and m are AC
Increase Im from 0P. But when Im (and H) goes through AC
cycle, the B field in iron (and hence flux m) does not follow. It
"sticks" - producing the loop as shown
m
P

Hysteresis loop
O

This is called Hysteresis loop

Im

28

Hysteresis Losses
Due to magnetic domains rubbing/sticking against
each other. Causes microscopic friction heating
Hysteresis loss area of loop

29

Representation of core loss in equivalent circuit

Both Loss_peddy and Loss_physt are m . Hence V1 .
Can represent both losses as single resistor across V1

~
I1
~
V1

~
Im

Lm

~
Ic

Rc

~
~ V1
Ic
Rc

30

Question
In a non ideal transformer with the iron power
loss of 2 w, how much will the current creating it
be if the primary voltage is 1o v?

P VI c 2 10 I c I c 0.2 A

31

Efficiency, Regulation and Ratings

Efficiency
Pout V2 I 2 cos 2

Pin
V1 I1 cos 1

Defined as :

~
I2

~
I1
~
V1

(4.6)

Real Transformer

~
V2

RL X L

This means have to calculate:

V2 and I2 phasors and hence angle between them
V1 and I1 phasors and hence angle between them

32

Easier way, avoiding calculation of both power factors:

We have Pout Pin Ploss

Pin Ploss V1 I1 cos 1 Ploss

Pin
V1 I1 cos 1

OR

(4.7a)

V2 I 2 cos 2
Pout

Pout Ploss V2 I 2 cos 2 Ploss

(4.7b)

33

Calculating P_loss

We saw that the equivalent circuit of a non ideal

l
R
l '
R'
~
~
TF was:
I1
I1
l1

l2

~
Im
~
V1

RL'

Lm

By replacing iron loss we will have:

~
I1
~
V1

~
Im
Lm

R1

~ ~
I1 I1

~
Ic
Rc

~
V1

~
~I m
I
m

Lm
Lm

ll1

~
I1

~
Ic
Rc

ll2'

R2'

RL'

34

Calculating P_loss (cont.)

So we will have:

~
V1

where Ploss =

R1

~ ~
I1 I1
~
I~
Im

ll1

~
I1

ll2'

~
Ic

Lm
Lm

RL'

Rc

2
2
I R I R
1
1
1
2

Copper losses
(due to wires)

I c 2 Rc
Iron losses

Note also that Pout I1 RL

(4.9)

R2'

(4.8)

35

How to approach the questions related to

this subject:
In most calculations (not all), one can ignore Rc .The
procedure is to refer to load and secondary R2 and l2
to primary and to calculate the current I1 . The losses
can then be calculated directly from (4.8).
The efficiency follows from (4.7a) or (4.7b) but note
that Pout can be calculated directly from I1 (eq. 4.9).

36

Question
If the iron loss in a non ideal TF is ignored, and
the loss power produced by both primary and
secondary windings is 5 w, how much will the
resistances related to primary and secondary
creating this loss be if they are equal to each
other and the secondary driven current is 0.2 A?
2
2

P I1 R I1 R 0 5 0.2 2 R 0.2 2 R

37

Regulation
Regulation =

V2 _ No _ load V2 _ full _ load

V2 _ full _ load

(4.10)

Where output voltage on no load (V2_no_load) > than the output

voltage on full load (V2_full load). Look at the simple equivalent
circuit:
ll1
R1
ll2'
R2'
~
~
I1

I1

~
Im
~
V1

~
Vdrop

Lm

~
V2

If load current , then I1 , then Vdrop

Normally Vdrop is mostly due to leakage inductance.
Regulation is a leakage phenomenon.

ZL'

38

Ratings
In a catalogue, or on a website, a TF is typical described as:
240/15V, 150VA, 20%, 50Hz. This means:

240V: Rated input voltage

15V: Full load output voltage V2
50Hz: The frequency that the TF is designed for
150VA: Volt-Amp rating = V2 I2 (values rms)
~ ~

Note: Power is V2 I 2 cos 2 and if TF supplying inductive load then

~
= 90 and P = 0, even though I 2 could be at rated value of 10A
rms

39

Question
Calculate the no load voltage for this TF (with
20% regulation)?
240/15V, 150VA, 20%, 50Hz. This means:
240V:
Rated input voltage
15V:Full load output voltage V2
50Hz:
The frequency that the TF is designed for
150VA: Volt-Amp rating = V2 I2 (values rms)

40

Solution
20%: Regulation; 20% =

V2 _ no _ load 15
15

giving V2_no_load = 18V when ~

I2 = 0

0.2

41

Finding parameters of equivalent circuit

These are R1, R2, Lm, l1, l2 and core loss. Catalogues
will not give you these. You can obtain them by
doing tests on the actual transformer. There are two
tests:

Open
circuit test

Shortcircuit test

42

(a) Open circuit test (secondary open-circuit)

Here, you apply rated input voltage to the TF with
no-load. The equivalent circuit looks like:
~
I1

~
V1

R1

~
Im
Lm

Rc

ll1

ll2'

R2 '

~
I1 0

V2

Ic

So, you measure V1, V2 ,I1 (=Im +Ic) and P1 (to give
~ ~
P

V
you cos1 since 1 1 I1 cos1 . From these, you can
find Lm and Rc. You also can determine the turns ratio.

So it
looks
like
this:

43

Open-circuit test

Transformer under test

AC supply

W
V

V
a = V1 / V2

The rated voltage at rated frequency is

V, I and P are measured.

applied.

44

(b) Short-circuit test (secondary short circuit)

Here, you apply a reduced input voltage (why?) to the
TF in which the output is shorted. The equivalent
circuit looks like:
~
l
l '
R'
R
I1
1

l1

l2

~
V1
The Lm branch is a large impedance relative to the coil
resistances and leakage inductances and can be ignored. You
now measure V1, I1 and P1 (to give you cos1). From these, you
can find l11 + l12'. You can assume that l11 = l12' and R1 =R2'
(approx true) and since you know the turns ratio, you can find
the true secondary parameters.

So it
looks
like
this:

45

Short-circuit test

Transformer under test

AC supply

W
V

One winding is short circuited

Usually reduced ac voltage is applied to one winding
until the rated current flows in the shortcircuited
winding.
V, I and P are measured.

46

Number of turns and transformer size

If you want a given step-up or step-down voltage ratio, this will

give the ratio N1:N2
What determines the actual values of N1 and N2?
Must ensure that iron does not saturate. Keep B<1.6T
From (lecture 2)
Hence (lecture 2)
Hence

~
V1
~
m
N1

V1
Ac N1

V1

BAc N1 constant

and

V1

N1

(4.11)

Can make N1 small and Ac large More Iron, Riron

Can make N1 large and Ac small More copper, Rcopper

Using a TF on different frequency supplies

47

Take a given 50Hz, 240V (input V) TF and N1 and Ac are fixed

(imagine N1 Ac>2). Can you use it on a different frequency supply?
Look at Eq.(4.11). Re-write it as:

V1
N1 Ac

V1

Now N1 and Ac are fixed, and B 1.6T

1.6
N1 Ac
Therefore the ratio of
V
1.6 N1 AC

Be careful if B exceeds 1.6T. Must not do this!

48

Designing a TF for different frequency supplies

50Hz has been chosen for historical reasons. Is it the best for TF?

Look at Eq.(4.11) again: Ac N1 V1 V1

2 fB

If we have a power system with higher f, and then N1 Ac will be

reduced, it is good, because N1Ac determines the physical size of
the transformer core and hence the weight.
Now you know why power supplies on aircraft are 400Hz and not
50Hz.

49

EXAMPLE (You will be able to solve it completely next session): The

rated primary values of a particular transformer are 240V, 10A at 50Hz. The
two standard transformer tests performed from the primary side yield the
following results:
Short circuit test: V1 = 24V, I1 = 10A, Power input = 80W
Open circuit test: V1 = 240V, I1 = 1A, Power input = 100W
Determine the parameters for the transformer equivalent circuit (referred to
the primary). What is the efficiency and voltage regulation of the
transformer when operates at full load and 0.8 lagging power factor.

50

Answer:

51

Answer (cont.)

52

Answer (cont.)

53

Answer (cont.)

54

Answer (cont.)

55

Answer (cont.)

56

Answer (cont.)

57

Answer (cont.)

58

Solve this for the next session:

59

TRANSFORMER SYMBOLS

The most common functions are for:

Changing the voltage and current levels
Electrical isolation
Impedance matching

A good transformer should have:

60

high permeability:
the core is made of iron, and therefore small
magnetising current

low iron losses:

core is laminated (high resistivity silicon steel or soft
ferrite)

small leakage reactance:

the primary and secondary coils together

low winding resistances:

reduced I2 R loss (heat), and higher efficiency

conductors:
aluminium, copper, and heavier insulation

61

62

POWER TRANSFORMER

63

TRANSFORMER CORE CONSTRUCTIONS

First layer

First layer

Second layer .............

Second layer ...........

64

The laminations and the coils are clamped

CLAMPING

Insufficient clamping results in hum, audible noise.

65

POWER DISTRIBUTION
Electronic
transformers

- 50 Hz
- 415 V rms, line to line
- 240 V rms, phase to neutral

240V/9V

~16 kV

16/66kV

GENERATOR
Power station

mainly 66kV, 132 kV,

and 275 kV
66/275kV
275/66kV
~ 200 km

66/132kV

11kV/415V
66/11kV

66/11kV

for light industrial

and domestic use
240V, phase-neutral

Heavy industrial use

Inside factory

11kV/415V

66

What we learnt today?