Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th edition

Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.,

and Bruce E. Bursten

Chapter 13
Properties of Solutions

John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Cottleville, MO

Solutions
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Solutions
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two
or more pure substances.
In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly
throughout the solvent.

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Solutions
The intermolecular
forces between solute
and solvent particles
must be strong enough
to compete with those
between solute particles
and those between
solvent particles.

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How Does a Solution Form?

As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute
particles apart and surrounds, or solvates,
them.

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How Does a Solution Form

If an ionic salt is
soluble in water, it is
because the iondipole interactions
are strong enough
to overcome the
lattice energy of the
salt crystal.

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Student, Beware!

Just because a substance disappears when it

comes in contact with a solvent, it doesnt
mean the substance dissolved.

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Student, Beware!

Dissolution is a physical change you can get back the

original solute by evaporating the solvent.
If you cant, the substance didnt dissolve, it reacted.

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Types of Solutions
Saturated
In a saturated solution,
the solvent holds as
much solute as is
possible at that
temperature.
Dissolved solute is in
dynamic equilibrium
with solid solute
particles.

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Types of Solutions
Unsaturated
If a solution is
unsaturated, less
solute than can
dissolve in the
solvent at that
temperature is
dissolved in the
solvent.

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Types of Solutions

Supersaturated
In supersaturated solutions, the solvent holds
more solute than is normally possible at that
temperature.
These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a seed crystal or Solutions
scratching the side of the flask.

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Factors Affecting Solubility

Chemists use the axiom like dissolves like."
Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents.
Nonpolar substances tend to dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.

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Factors Affecting Solubility

The more similar the
intermolecular
attractions, the more
likely one substance
is to be soluble in
another.

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Factors Affecting Solubility

Glucose (which has
hydrogen bonding)
is very soluble in
water, while
cyclohexane (which
only has dispersion
forces) is not.

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Factors Affecting Solubility

Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar compounds
(like fats).
Vitamin C is soluble in water.

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Gases in Solution
In general, the
solubility of gases in
water increases with
increasing mass.
Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.

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Gases in Solution
The solubility of
liquids and solids
does not change
appreciably with
pressure.
The solubility of a
gas in a liquid is
directly proportional
to its pressure.

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Henrys Law
Sg = kPg
where
Sg is the solubility of
the gas,
k is the Henrys Law
constant for that gas in
that solvent, and
Pg is the partial
pressure of the gas
above the liquid.

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Temperature
Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents increases
with increasing
temperature.

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Temperature
The opposite is true
of gases.
Carbonated soft
drinks are more
bubbly if stored in
the refrigerator.
Warm lakes have
less O2 dissolved in
them than cool lakes.

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Sample Exercise 13.2 Predicting Solubility Patterns

Predict whether each of the following substances is more likely to

dissolve in the nonpolar solvent carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4) or in
water: C7H16, Na2SO4, HCl, and I2.

Solution

Analyze: We are given two solvents, one that is nonpolar (CCl4) and the
other that is polar (H2O), and asked to determine which will be the best
solvent for each solute listed.
Plan: By examining the formulas of the solutes, we can predict whether they
are ionic or molecular. For those that are molecular, we can predict whether
they are polar or nonpolar. We can then apply the idea that the nonpolar
solvent will be best for the nonpolar solutes, whereas the polar solvent will
be best for the ionic and polar solutes.
Solve: C7H16 is a hydrocarbon, so it is molecular and nonpolar. Na2SO4, a
compound containing a metal and nonmetals, is ionic. HCl, a diatomic
molecule containing two nonmetals that differ in electronegativity, is polar. I2,
a diatomic molecule with atoms of equal electronegativity, is nonpolar. We
would therefore predict that C7H16 and I2 (the nonpolar solutes) would be
more soluble in the nonpolar CCl4 than in polar H2O, whereas water would
Solutions
be the better solvent for Na2SO4 and HCl (the ionic and polar covalent
solutes).

Sample Exercise 13.2 Predicting Solubility Patterns

Practice Exercise
Arrange the following substances in order of increasing
solubility in water:

Solutions

The curve describes the solubility properties of

a liquid.
an ionic solid.
a covalent solid.
a gas.
a gas or liquid.

2.0
Solubility mM

1.0

15
30
45
Temperature (C)

60

Solutions

The curve describes the solubility properties of

a liquid.
an ionic solid.
a covalent solid.
a gas.
a gas or liquid.

2.0
Solubility mM

1.0

15
30
45
Temperature (C)

60

Solutions

Considering the substances given below, predict

which will be soluble in water.

1
2
3
2, 3
1, 2, 3

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
1
O
NH3

H3C C CH3

Solutions

Considering the substances given below, predict

which will be soluble in water.

1
2
3
2, 3
1, 2, 3

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
1
O
NH3

H3C C CH3

Solutions

Ways of
Expressing
Concentrations
of Solutions

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Mass Percentage

mass of A in solution
100
Mass % of A =
total mass of solution

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Parts per Million and

Parts per Billion
Parts per Million (ppm)
mass of A in solution
106
ppm =
total mass of solution

Parts per Billion (ppb)

mass of A in solution
109
ppb =
total mass of solution

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Mole Fraction (X)

moles of A
XA =
total moles in solution
In some applications, one needs the
mole fraction of solvent, not solute
make sure you find the quantity you
need!

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Molarity (M)
M=

mol of solute
L of solution

You will recall this concentration

measure from Chapter 4.
Since volume is temperaturedependent, molarity can change with
temperature.

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When concentration is expressed in units

of ________ , changing temperature will affect the
solution concentration.

molality
molarity
ppm
molarity and molality
molarity, molality, and ppm

Solutions

When concentration is expressed in units

of ________ , changing temperature will affect the
solution concentration.

molality
molarity
ppm
molarity and molality
molarity, molality, and ppm

Solutions

Molality (m)
m=

mol of solute
kg of solvent

Since both moles and mass do not

change with temperature, molality
(unlike molarity) is not temperaturedependent.

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Changing Molarity to Molality

If we know the
density of the
solution, we can
calculate the
molality from the
molarity and vice
versa.

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Sample Exercise 13.4 Calculation of Mass-Related Concentrations

(a)Asolutionismadebydissolving13.5gofglucose(C6H12O6)in0.100kgofwater.Whatisthemass
percentageofsoluteinthissolution?(b)A2.5gsampleofgroundwaterwasfoundtocontain5.4gofZn2+.
WhatistheconcentrationofZn2+inpartspermillion?
Solution
(a)Analyze:Wearegiventhenumberofgramsofsolute(13.5g)andthenumberofgramsofsolvent
(0.100kg=100g).Fromthiswemustcalculatethemasspercentageofsolute.
Plan:WecancalculatethemasspercentagebyusingEquation13.5.Themassofthesolutionisthesumof
themassofsolute(glucose)andthemassofsolvent(water).

Comment:Themasspercentageofwaterinthissolutionis(10011.9)%=88.1%.
(b)Analyze:Inthiscasewearegiventhenumberofmicrogramsofsolute.Because1gis1106g,
5.4g=5.4106g.
Plan:WecalculatethepartspermillionusingEquation13.6.

Practice Exercise
(a)CalculatethemasspercentageofNaClinasolutioncontaining1.50gofNaClin50.0gofwater.(b)A
commercialbleachingsolutioncontains3.62mass%sodiumhypochlorite,NaOCl.Whatisthemassof
NaOClinabottlecontaining2.50kgofbleachingsolution?
Answer:(a)2.91%,(b)90.5gofNaOCl
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.5 Calculation of Molality

Asolutionismadebydissolving4.35gglucose(C 6H12O6)in25.0mLofwaterat25C.Calculatethe
molalityofglucoseinthesolution.Waterhasadensityof1.00g/mL.
Solution
Analyze:Weareaskedtocalculateamolality.Todothis,wemustdeterminethenumberofmolesof
solute(glucose)andthenumberofkilogramsofsolvent(water).
Plan:WeusethemolarmassofC6H12O6toconvertgramstomoles.Weusethedensityofwatertoconvert
milliliterstokilograms.Themolalityequalsthenumberofmolesofsolutedividedbythenumberof
kilogramsofsolvent(Equation13.9).
Solve:Usethemolarmassofglucose,180.2g/mL,to
convertgramstomoles:
Becausewaterhasadensityof1.00g/mL,themass
ofthesolventis
Finally,useEquation13.9toobtainthemolality:
Practice Exercise
Whatisthemolalityofasolutionmadebydissolving36.5gofnaphthalene(C 10H8)in425goftoluene
(C7H8)?
Answer:0.670m
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.6 Calculation of Mole Fraction and Molality

Anaqueoussolutionofhydrochloricacidcontains36%HClbymass.(a)CalculatethemolefractionofHCl
inthesolution.(b)CalculatethemolalityofHClinthesolution.
Solution
Analyze:Weareaskedtocalculatetheconcentrationofthesolute,HCl,intworelatedconcentrationunits,
givenonlythepercentagebymassofthesoluteinthesolution.
Plan:Inconvertingconcentrationunitsbasedonthemassormolesofsoluteandsolvent(masspercentage,
molefraction,andmolality),itisusefultoassumeacertaintotalmassofsolution.Letsassumethatthere
isexactly100gofsolution.Becausethesolutionis36%HCl,itcontains36gofHCland(10036)g=64
gofH2O.Wemustconvertgramsofsolute(HCl)tomolestocalculateeithermolefractionormolality.We
mustconvertgramsofsolvent(H2O)tomolestocalculatemolefractions,andtokilogramstocalculate
molality.
Solve:(a)TocalculatethemolefractionofHCl,we
convertthemassesofHClandH2Otomolesand
thenuseEquation13.7:

(b)TocalculatethemolalityofHClinthesolution,
weuseEquation13.9.Wecalculatedthenumberof
molesofHClinpart(a),andthemassofsolventis
64g=0.064kg:
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.6 Calculation of Mole Fraction and Molality

Practice Exercise
Acommercialbleachsolutioncontains3.62mass%NaOClinwater.Calculate(a)themolefractionand(b)
themolalityofNaOClinthesolution.
Answer:(a)9.00103,(b)0.505m.

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition

By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.7 Calculation of Molality Using the Density of a Solution

Asolutionwithadensityof0.876g/mLcontains5.0goftoluene(C 7H8)and225gofbenzene.Calculatethe
molarityofthesolution.
Solution
Analyze:Ourgoalistocalculatethemolarityofasolution,giventhemassesofsolute(5.0g)andsolvent
(225g)andthedensityofthesolution(0.876g/mL).
Plan:Themolarityofasolutionisthenumberofmolesofsolutedividedbythenumberoflitersof
solution(Equation13.8).Thenumberofmolesofsolute(C 7H8)iscalculatedfromthenumberofgramsof
soluteanditsmolarmass.Thevolumeofthesolutionisobtainedfromthemassofthesolution(massof
solute+massofsolvent=5.0g+225g=230g)anditsdensity.
Solve:Thenumberofmolesofsoluteis
Thedensityofthesolutionisusedtoconvertthe
massofthesolutiontoitsvolume:
Molarityismolesofsoluteperliterofsolution:
Check:Themagnitudeofouranswerisreasonable.
Roundingmolesto0.05andlitersto0.25
givesamolarityof
Theunitsforouranswer(mol/L)arecorrect,andtheanswer,0.21M,hastwosignificantfigures,correspondingto
thenumberofsignificantfiguresinthemassofsolute(2).
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.7 Calculation of Molality Using the Density of a Solution

Solution (continued)
Comment:Becausethemassofthesolvent
(0.225kg)andthevolumeofthesolution(0.263L)
aresimilarinmagnitude,themolarityandmolality
arealsosimilarinmagnitude:
Practice Exercise
Asolutioncontainingequalmassesofglycerol(C 3H8O3)andwaterhasadensityof1.10g/mL.Calculate(a)
themolalityofglycerol,(b)themolefractionofglycerol,(c)themolarityofglycerolinthesolution.
Answer:(a)10.9m,(b)=0.163,(c)5.97M

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition

By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Colligative Properties
Changes in colligative properties
depend only on the number of solute
particles present, not on the identity of
the solute particles.
Among colligative properties are
Vapor pressure lowering
Boiling point elevation
Melting point depression
Osmotic pressure

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Vapor Pressure
Because of solutesolvent intermolecular
attraction, higher
concentrations of
nonvolatile solutes
make it harder for
solvent to escape to
the vapor phase.

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Vapor Pressure
Therefore, the vapor
pressure of a solution
is lower than that of
the pure solvent.

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Raoults Law
PA = XAPA
where
XA is the mole fraction of compound A, and
PA is the normal vapor pressure of A at
that temperature.
NOTE: This is one of those times when you
want to make sure you have the vapor
Solutions
pressure of the solvent.

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Boiling Point Elevation and

Freezing Point Depression
Nonvolatile solutesolvent interactions
also cause solutions
to have higher boiling
points and lower
freezing points than
the pure solvent.

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Boiling Point Elevation

The change in boiling
point is proportional to
the molality of the
solution:
Tb = Kb m

Tb is added to the normal

boiling point of the solvent.

where Kb is the molal

boiling point elevation
constant, a property of
the solvent.

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Boiling Point Elevation

The change in freezing
point can be found
similarly:
Tf = Kf m
Here Kf is the molal
freezing point
depression constant of
the solvent.
Tf is subtracted from the normal
boiling point of the solvent.

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Boiling Point Elevation and

Freezing Point Depression
Note that in both
equations, T does
not depend on what
the solute is, but
only on how many
particles are
dissolved.

Tb = Kb m
Tf = Kf m

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Colligative Properties of
Electrolytes
Since these properties depend on the number of
particles dissolved, solutions of electrolytes (which
dissociate in solution) should show greater changes
than those of nonelectrolytes.

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Colligative Properties of
Electrolytes
However, a 1M solution of NaCl does not show
twice the change in freezing point that a 1M
solution of methanol does.

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vant Hoff Factor

One mole of NaCl in
water does not really
give rise to two
moles of ions.

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vant Hoff Factor

Some Na+ and Clreassociate for a short
time, so the true
concentration of
particles is somewhat
less than two times the
concentration of NaCl.

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vant Hoff Factor

Reassociation is
more likely at higher
concentration.
Therefore, the
number of particles
present is
concentrationdependent.

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vant Hoff Factor

We modify the
previous equations
by multiplying by the
vant Hoff factor, i.

Tf = Kf m i

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Sample Exercise 13.7 Calculation of Molality Using the Density of a Solution

Solution (continued)
Comment:Becausethemassofthesolvent
(0.225kg)andthevolumeofthesolution(0.263L)
aresimilarinmagnitude,themolarityandmolality
arealsosimilarinmagnitude:
Practice Exercise
Asolutioncontainingequalmassesofglycerol(C 3H8O3)andwaterhasadensityof1.10g/mL.Calculate(a)
themolalityofglycerol,(b)themolefractionofglycerol,(c)themolarityofglycerolinthesolution.
Answer:(a)10.9m,(b)=0.163,(c)5.97M

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition

By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.8 Calculation of Vapor-Pressure Lowering

Glycerin(C3H8O3)isanonvolatilenonelectrolytewithadensityof1.26g/mLat25C.Calculatethevapor
pressureat25Cofasolutionmadebyadding50.0mLofglycerinto500.0mLofwater.Thevaporpressure
ofpurewaterat25Cis23.8torr(AppendixB),anditsdensityis1.00g/mL.
Solution
Analyze:Ourgoalistocalculatethevaporpressureofasolution,giventhevolumesofsoluteandsolvent
andthedensityofthesolute.
Plan:WecanuseRaoultslaw(Equation13.10)tocalculatethevaporpressureofasolution.Themole
fractionofthesolventinthesolution,XA,istheratioofthenumberofmolesofsolvent(H2O)tototalmoles
ofsolution(molesC3H8O3+molesH2O).
Solve:Tocalculatethemolefractionofwaterinthe
solution,wemustdeterminethenumberof
molesofC3H8O3andH2O:

WenowuseRaoultslawtocalculatethe
vaporpressureofwaterforthesolution:

Thevaporpressureofthesolutionhasbeenloweredby0.6torrrelativetothatofpurewater.

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition

By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.8 Calculation of Vapor-Pressure Lowering

Practice Exercise
Thevaporpressureofpurewaterat110Cis1070torr.Asolutionofethyleneglycolandwaterhasavapor
pressureof1.00atmat110C.AssumingthatRaoultslawisobeyed,whatisthemolefractionofethylene
glycolinthesolution?
Answer:0.290

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition

By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.9 Calculation of Boiling-Point Elevation and

Freezing-Point Lowering
Automotiveantifreezeconsistsofethyleneglycol,CH 2(OH)CH2(OH),anonvolatilenonelectrolyte.Calculate
theboilingpointandfreezingpointofa25.0mass%solutionofethyleneglycolinwater.
Solution
Analyze:Wearegiventhatasolutioncontains25.0mass%ofanonvolatile,nonelectrolytesoluteand
askedtocalculatetheboilingandfreezingpointsofthesolution.Todothis,weneedtocalculatethe
boilingpointelevationandfreezingpointdepression.
Plan:TocalculatetheboilingpointelevationandthefreezingpointdepressionusingEquations13.11and
12,wemustexpresstheconcentrationofthesolutionasmolality.Letsassumeforconveniencethatwe
have1000gofsolution.Becausethesolutionis25.0mass%ethyleneglycol,themassesofethyleneglycol
andwaterinthesolutionare250and750g,respectively.Usingthesequantities,wecancalculatethe
molalityofthesolution,whichweusewiththemolalboilingpointelevationandfreezingpointdepression
constants(Table13.4)tocalculateTbandTf.WeaddTbtotheboilingpointandsubtractTffromthe
freezingpointofthesolventtoobtaintheboilingpointandfreezingpointofthesolution.
Solve:Themolalityofthesolutioniscalculatedasfollows:

WecannowuseEquations13.11and13.12tocalculatethechangesintheboilingandfreezingpoints:

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition

By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.9 Calculation of Boiling-Point Elevation and

Freezing-Point Lowering
Solution (continued)
Hence,theboilingandfreezingpointsofthesolutionare

Comment:Noticethatthesolutionisaliquidoveralargertemperaturerangethanthepuresolvent.
Practice Exercise
Calculatethefreezingpointofasolutioncontaining0.600kgofCHCl 3and42.0gofeucalyptol(C10H18O),a
fragrantsubstancefoundintheleavesofeucalyptustrees.(SeeTable13.4.)
Answer:65.6C

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition

By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.10 Freezing-Point Depression in Aqueous Solutions

Listthefollowingaqueoussolutionsinorderoftheirexpectedfreezingpoint:0.050mCaCl2,0.15mNaCl,
0.10mHCl,0.050mCH3COOH,0.10mC12H22O11.
Solution
Analyze:Wemustorderfiveaqueoussolutionsaccordingtoexpectedfreezingpoints,basedonmolalities
andthesoluteformulas.
Plan:Thelowestfreezingpointwillcorrespondtothesolutionwiththegreatestconcentrationofsolute
particles.Todeterminethetotalconcentrationofsoluteparticlesineachcase,wemustdeterminewhether
thesubstanceisanonelectrolyteoranelectrolyteandconsiderthenumberofionsformedwhenan
electrolyteionizes.
Solve:CaCl2,NaCl,andHClarestrongelectrolytes,CH3COOH(aceticacid)isaweakelectrolyte,and
C12H22O11isanonelectrolyte.Themolalityofeachsolutionintotalparticlesisasfollows:

Becausethefreezingpointsdependonthetotalmolalityofparticlesinsolution,theexpectedorderingis
0.15mNaCl(lowestfreezingpoint),0.10mHCl,0.050mCaCl2,0.10mC12H22O11,and0.050m
CH3COOH(highestfreezingpoint).
Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition
By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Sample Exercise 13.10 Freezing-Point Depression in Aqueous Solutions

Practice Exercise
Whichofthefollowingsoluteswillproducethelargestincreaseinboilingpointuponadditionto1kgof
water:1molofCo(NO3)2,2molofKCl,3molofethyleneglycol(C2H6O2)?
Answer:2molofKClbecauseitcontainsthehighestconcentrationofparticles,2mK+and2mCl,giving
4minall

Chemistry: The Central Science, Eleventh Edition

By Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy
With contributions from Patrick Woodward

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Predict which aqueous solution will have the lowest

freezing point.

0.25 m C2H5OH
0.15 m CaCl2
0.20 m NaCl
0.15 m NH4NO3
0.15 m Na3PO4

Solutions

Predict which aqueous solution will have the lowest

freezing point.

0.25 m C2H5OH
0.15 m CaCl2
0.20 m NaCl
0.15 m NH4NO3
0.15 m Na3PO4

Solutions

Arrange the aqueous solutions according to

increasing boiling point.

AlCl3 < KNO3 < Na2SO4

Na2SO4 < AlCl3 < KNO3
Na2SO4 < KNO3 < AlCl3
KNO3 < AlCl3 < Na2SO4
KNO3 < Na2SO4 < AlCl3

0.10 m Na2SO4
0.15 m AlCl3
0.20 m KNO3

Solutions

Arrange the aqueous solutions according to

increasing boiling point.

AlCl3 < KNO3 < Na2SO4

Na2SO4 < AlCl3 < KNO3
Na2SO4 < KNO3 < AlCl3
KNO3 < AlCl3 < Na2SO4
KNO3 < Na2SO4 < AlCl3

0.10 m Na2SO4
0.15 m AlCl3
0.20 m KNO3

Solutions

Colloids
Suspensions of particles larger than
individual ions or molecules, but too small to
be settled out by gravity are called colloids.

Solutions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Tyndall Effect
Colloidal suspensions
can scatter rays of light.
This phenomenon is
known as the Tyndall
effect.

Solutions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Colloids in Biological Systems

Some molecules have
a polar, hydrophilic
(water-loving) end and
a non-polar,
hydrophobic (waterhating) end.

Solutions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Colloids in Biological Systems

Sodium stearate
is one example
of such a
molecule.

Solutions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Colloids in Biological Systems

These molecules
can aid in the
emulsification of fats
and oils in aqueous
solutions.

Solutions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.