Vector Addition

The order in which A and B are added is not

significant, so that A + B = B + A

To add vector B to vector A, draw B so that

its tail is at the head of A. The vector sum A
+ B is the vector R that joins the tail of A
and the head of B.

Usually, R is called the resultant of A and B.

Exactly the same procedure is followed

when more than two vectors of the same
kind are to be added. The vectors are
strung together head to

The resultant R is the vector drawn from

the tail of the first vector to the head of the
last.

Pythagorean Theorem
The sum of the squares of the
short sides of a right triangle is
equal to the square of its
hypotenuse. For the triangle of
Figure on next slide
Hence, we can always express the
length of any of the sides of a right
triangle in terms of the lengths of
the other sides:

The sum of the interior angles of

any triangle is 180. Since one of
the angles in a right triangle is
90, the sum of the other two
must be 90. ( + = 90).

The three basic trigonometric functions the

sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle are
defined in terms of the right triangle of as
follows:

The inverse of a trigonometric function is

the angle whose function is given.

Q. A woman walks eastward for 5 km and then

north-ward for 10 km. How far is she from her
starting point? If she had walked directly to her
destination, in what direction would she have
headed?
Solution.
R = A2 + B2
The length of the resultant vector R
corresponds to a distance of 11.2 km, and a
protractor shows that its direction is 27
east of north.

Q. Find the values of the sine, cosine, and

tangent of angle
in Figure.
Solution.

Electric Charge

Electric charge, like mass, is one of the basic

properties of certain elementary particles of
which all matter is composed.
OR

Electric charge is an intrinsic

characteristic of the fundamental
particles making up those objects;
that is , it is a property that comes
automatically with those particles
wherever they exist.

The vast amount of charge in

an every object is usually
hidden because the object
contains equal amount of two
kinds of charge: Positive
charge and negative charge.

The effects of electric charge

were first observed as static
electricity:

The physics of electromagnetism

was first studied by the early Greek
Philosophers, who discovered that
if a piece of amber is rubbed and
brought near bits of straw, the
straw will jump to the amber.
The attraction between amber and
straw is due to electric force.

After being
rubbed on a
piece of fur, an
amber rod
acquires a
charge and can
attract small
objects.

So there are two types of

Electric charges, positive
charge and negative
charge

Electric Charge
Charging both amber and glass rods shows that there are two types
of electric charge;

Electric charges of the same sign

repel each other.

Opposite electric charges attract

each other.

The positive charge in

ordinary matters is
carried by protons and
the negative by
electrons.

The atom
An atom is a fundamental unit of
matter
made up of

protons (with a positive charge)

neutrons (neutral no charge)
electrons (with a negative charge)

The electrons in an atom are in a cloud

surrounding the nucleus. Number of
electrons and number of protons are
equal, so the atom electrically is neutral.

Oxygen atom

What is electricity?
Everything is made of atoms which contain
POSITIVE particles called PROTONS and
NEGATIVE particles called ELECTRONS.

Electron (-)

Proton (+)

Neutron

An atom will usually have the same number

of positives and negatives
This makes the atom NEUTRAL.

Electron (-)

Proton (+)

Neutron

The Unit of charge is Coulomb (C).

All Electrons and Protons have
exactly the same charge but
different in sign.
The charge of the Proton is
+1.6 x 10

-19

The charge of the Electron is

-1.6 x 10-19 C

Charge is Quantized
When a physical quantity
such as charge can have
only discrete values rather
than any values, we say
that quantity is quantized.

All charges in nature occur in

multiples of a certain
elementary charge,
-19
+ e = + 1.6 x 10 C
Any positive or negative
charge q that can be detected
can be written as
q = ne,
n = +1, +2, +3,.

Charge conservation

This is the principle that electric

charge can neither be created nor
destroyed. The net quantity of electric
charge, the amount of positive charge
minus the amount of negative charge
in the universe, is always conserved.
Statement of the principle was by American
scientist Benjamin Franklin in 1747.

Mathematically, we can state the law as

a continuity equation:
Q(t) is the quantity of electric charge in
a specific volume at timet, QIN is the
amount of charge flowing into the
volume between time t1 and t2, and QOUT
is the amount of charge flowing out of
the volume during the same time
period.

When matter is created from energy, equal

amount of negative and positive charge always
come into being, and when matter is converted to
energy, equal amount of positive and negative
charge disappear.
For example, When a electron annihilates a
positron(antielectron), they produce two or
more gamma ray photons,
e+e++

In this Feynman diagram, an electron and a

positron annihilate, producing a photon
(represented by the blue sine wave) that
becomes a quark-antiquark pair, after
which the antiquark radiates a gluon
(represented by the green helix).

Coulombs Law
The force one charge exerts an other is
given by Coulombs Law
The magnitude of the electrostatic force of
interaction between two point charges is
directly proportional to the multiplication of the
magnitudes of charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
If the two charges have the same sign, the
electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if
they have different sign, the force between
them is attractive.

Coulomb's law can also be stated as a

simple mathematical expression.

F = K q1q2
r2

where k is Coulomb's constant, q1 and q2

are the signed magnitudes of the charges,
r the distance between the charges.
The constant is the permittivity of free
space in C2 m2 N1

Electric Field

Electric field induced by a positive electric charge

(Outward arrows)

Electric field induced by a negative electric charge

(Inward arrows)

An electric field is a region of space in which a

charge would be acted upon by an electric force.

An electric field may be produced by one or

more charges, and it may be uniform or it
may vary in magnitude and/ or direction
from place to place

Electric field is a region of space in which a

charge would be acted upon by an electric
force. An electric field may be produced by

If a charge q at a certain point is acted on by

the force F, the electric field E at that point is
dened as the ratio between
F and q:

The unit of E is the Newton per Coulomb (N/C)

or, more commonly, the equivalent unit volt per
meter (V/m).
Or E = potential difference = V/m
distance

The potential difference V between

two points in an electric field, is the
amount of work needed to take a
charge of 1 C from one of the points to
the other.

The potential difference between two

points in a uniform electric field E is equal
to the product
of E and the distance s between the points

Example: A pith ball has a charge of +10-12 C.

(a)does it contain an excess or a deficiency of
electrons compared with its normal state of
electrical neutrality?
(b)How many electrons?
Solution: (a) Since the pith is positively charged,
so some electrons are needed to balance the
positive charge of its nuclear protons.
(b) The charge of an electron is
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C, q (is given) = +10-12C
Number of electrons = ?
We know q = ne
Hence, number of electrons = q/e
=
10-12 C
1.6x 10-19 C
n = 6.25 x 106 electrons

What is electricity?
So electricity is
movement of charge round a
circuit.
We call this electric current.

Charge, Current & Time

Electric current is given the symbol

I
Electric current is the movement
of
negative charges (electrons) in a
circuit

Charge, Current & Time

Current is the amount of charge
flowing
per second and is given the unit

Amps (A)

Charge, Current & Time

so
If current
is of
charge
per second then
a current
1 A isflowing
1 C of charge
transferred in 1 s.

Q
I
t

Charge transferred
in coulombs (C)

Current in Amps (A)

time in seconds (s)

Charge, Current & Time

This can be rearranged as

Q It
or

Q
t
I

Problem: The potential difference

between a certain thundercloud and the
ground is 7 106 V. Find the energy
dissipated when a charge of 50 C is
transferred from the cloud to the ground in
a lightning
stroke.
Solution. The energy is

CURRENT
ow of charge from one place to anoth

An electric circuit is a closed path in which an

electric current carries energy from a source
(such as a battery or generator), to a load (such

Electric
Current:
The flow of
electric
charges.

Electric
Current, I
I=q
t
Rate
Unit: Coulomb / sec = Ampere
Andre Ampere (1775-1836)

(A)

Conventional current has the direction

that the (+) charges would have in the
circuit.

http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/36/236-004-D4AA985F.gi

current is always supposed to go from the

positive
terminal of a battery to its negative
terminal.
Conductors:
A conductor is a substance through which
charge can flow easily, and an insulator is
one through which charge can flow only
with great difficulty. Metals, many liquids,
and plasmas (gases whose molecules are
charged) are conductors; nonmetallic
solids, certain liquids, and gases whose
molecules are electrically neutral are

Ohms Law

Problem 12.1 A 120-V electric heater draws

a current of 25 A. What is its resistance?
Solution:

Resistance
Depends on type of material,
size and shape, temperature.
R= L
A
L: length of the wire
A: cross-sectional area
: resistivity (inherent to material)

where L is the length of the conductor,

A is the cross-sectional area, and r
(Greek letter rho), is the resistivity of
the material of the conductor. In SI,
the unit of resistivity is the ohmmeter.
The resistivity of most materials vary
with temperature. If R is the resistance
of a conductor at a particular
temperature, then the change in its
resistance R when the temperature
changes by T is approximately
proportional to both R and T so that

Temperature Dependence of
Resistance

For metals: as temperature

increases the resistance
increases. At very low
temperatures resistance can
become zero: superconductivity.
For semiconductors: the
opposite occurs.

Q. One method of painting a metal panel uses electrostatic

charges. A paint spray produces paint droplets, all of which are
given a positive charge. The metal panel is given a negative,
charge as shown below

a) State the effect that charges have on each other

(i)
like charges (ii) unlike charges
b) (i) Explain why the droplets spread out as they leave
the nozzle. (ii) Explain why it is important that the metal panel
has a negative charge.
(iii) State one advantage of using electrostatics in this
way to paint the metal panel.

 Direct
Current
DC
Provided by
batteries

Alternating
Current
AC
Provided by
power companies

Example:
What charge flows through a cross
sectional area of a wire in 10min, if
the ammeter measures a current of
5mA?
Answer: 3C

Resistance

Resistance of an object to the

flow of electrical current.
R= V / I
Resistance equals the ratio of
voltage to current.
Unit: Ohm ()

Ohms Law (Georg Ohm,

1787-1854)

V = IR

The voltage , V, across a resistor

is proportional to the current, I,
that flows through it.
In general, resistance does not
depend on the voltage.

Resistor
An object that
has a given
resistance.

A Battery Provides Energy

The battery
pumps positive
charges from
low (-) to
high (+)
potential.

Electric Circuit

Resistors use up Energy

A resistor uses
up energy.
When the
current goes
through the
resistor it goes
to a lower
potential.

Electric Circuit

Question:

Which point has

a lower
potential, A or B?
Electric Circuit

Example:
Calculate the current through a 3
resistor when a voltage of 12V
is applied across it.

Answer: 4 A

Example:
A 6 resistor has a power source of
20V across it. What will happen to
the resistance if the voltage doubles?

Potentiometer
A variable
resistance.
Used for dimmers,
fan speed controls,
etc.

Potentiometer Symbol

Example:
Calculate the current through a 3
resistor when a voltage of 12V is
applied across it.

Voltmeter

Measures the voltage

between two points in an
electric circuit.
Must be connected in
parallel.

A voltmeter is connected in parallel.

Ammeter
Measures electric
current.
Must be placed in
series.