MCT 2337

Electrical Machines

Lecture Slide #1
Introduction to Machinery
Principles
1

Dr. Iskandar Al-Thani bin Mahmood

Department of Mechatronics Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
International Islamic University Malaysia
E-mail: am.iskandar@iium.edu.my

ELECTRICAL MACHINES

An electrical machine is a device that can convert either:

Mechanical energy to Electrical energy, or
Electrical energy to Mechanical energy.

When it converts:

Mechanical energy to Electrical energy Generator

Electrical energy to Mechanical energy Motor
Since, any electrical machine can convert power in any direction,
any machine can be used as motor or generator.

Transformer is a electrical device that is closely related

to electrical machine. It operate on the same principle as
motors and generators magnetic field.
2

Why motor and generator are so common?

The answer are:

Electrical power is a clean, efficient, easy to transmit over long

distances and easy to control. This is unlike internalcombustion engine.

ROTATIONAL MOTION, NEWTONS LAW AND

POWER RELATIONSHIPS
Almost all electric machine rotate about an axis shaft.

Because of the rotational nature of machinery, it is

important to have basic understanding of rotational
motion.
In general, a 3-dimensional vector is required to
describe a rotation of an object, but since machines turn
on a fixed shaft, one angular dimension is enough,
In this course, clockwise(CW) is assumed to be +ve, and
counterclockwise(CCW) is assumed to be ve.
4

ROTATIONAL MOTION

Angular position, , of an object is the angle at which

it is oriented from some ref. point and normally
measure in radians or degrees.
The following symbols are used to describe angular
velocity and angular acceleration
d m
m, Angular Velocity, radians/second; m
dt

fm , Angular Velocity, revolution/second

nm, Angular Velocity, revolution/minute

d
, Angular Acceleration, radians/second2;
dt

The subscript m is to indicate mechanical quantity.

Shaft speed are related to each other by the following

equations

nm 60 f m

m
fm
2

TORQUE

In linear motion, a force applied to an object causes its velocity to change.

There exists a similar concept in rotation i.e. torque.

The torque on an object is the product of force applied and the smallest
distance between the line of action of the force and the objects axis of
rotation.

Figure 1-1
(a)

A force applied to a cylinder so that it passes through the axis of rotation.

(b)

A force applied to a cylinder so that the line of action misses the axis of rotation.

More formally,

rxF

Figure 1-2
Derivation of the equation for the torque on an object

NEWTONS LAW OF ROTATION

In linear motion, the Newtons law is given by the equation

F ma

A similar equation describes the relationship between the torque

applied to an object and its resulting angular acceleration call
Newtons law of rotation
J

is the net applied torque (Newton-meters)

is the resulting angular acceleration (radians/second2)

J is the moment of inertia of the object (kilogram-meters 2)

WORK

For linear motion, work is defined as the application of a force

through distance. In equation form

W Fdr

For a constant force that is collinear with the direction of motion

W Fr

For rotational motion, work is the application of a torque through an

angle. In equation form

For constant torque

W d

10

POWER

Power is the rate of doing work, or the increase in work per unit time.
The equation for power is

dW
P
dt

By this definition, and assuming that force is constant and collinear

with the direction of motion, power is given by

dW d
dr
P
Ft F
Fv
dt
dt
dt

Similarly, assuming constant torque, power in rotational motion is

given by

dW d
d
P


dt
dt
dt

11

THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism in

electrical machineries. Four basic principles below describe
how magnetic field are used in these devices:

A current-carrying wire produced a magnetic field in the area

around it. (Magnetic field is measured by H magnetic field
intensity.)

A time changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if

it passes through that coil - Transformer action.

A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a

force induced on it - Motor action.

A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage

induced in it - Generator action..

12

Magnetic field intensity is governed by Amperes Law

where

H.dI I

net

H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current Inet

dl is a differential element of length along path of integration.

To better understand the meaning of this equation, let

us look at the following example:

13

EXAMPLE 1

Consider this rectangular core with N turn wire winding wrapped about
one leg of the core.
Assuming the core is made of ferromagnetic materials, all the magnetic
field produced by the current will remain inside the core, so the path of
integration in Amperes law is the mean path length of the core lc.

H.dI H dl Hl

I net

The current passing within the path of

integration Inett is then Ni or magnetomotive force (mmf).

Thus, Amperes law becomes

Hl c Ni

Therefore, the magnitude of the magnetic

field intensity in the core due
to the applied current is

Ni
H
lc

Fig.1: A simple magnetic core

14

Magnetic field intensity H is in a sense a measure of the effort

that a current is putting into the establishment of a magnetic field.
The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also
depends on the material of the core.
The relationship between the H and the resulting magnetic flux
density B within a material is given by

B H

where
H = magnetic field intensity (ampere-turns per meter, A/m)
= magnetic permeability of material. (henrys per meter,H/m)
B = resulting magnetic flux density produced (tesla, T)

The permeability of free space is called 0, and its value is

0 4 10 7

H/m

15

The permeability of any other material compared to the 0 is called its

relative permeability

r
0

In the core shown in Fig. 1, the magnitude of the flux density is given
by

Ni
B H
lc

The total flux in a given area is given by

B.dA
A

where dA is the differential unit of area.

If the flux density vector is perpendicular to a plane of area A, and flux

density is constant throughout the area

NiA
BA
lc

16

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF FERROMAGNETIC

MATERIALS

The relative permeability of ferromagnetic

material is very high, up to 6000 times the
permeability of free space.
Although permeability is constant in free space,
it is not true for ferromagnetic materials.
Consider a direct current applied to the core in
Fig. 1 starting from 0 A and slowly working up
to the maximum permissible current.
Fig. 2(a) illustrate the produced in the core
versus mmf producing it.
Note that the produced in the core is linear in
the unsaturated region, and approaches a
constant regardless of mmf in the saturated
region.

Fig. 2: Saturation Curve or

Magnetizing curve or B-H curve.
17

From these equations

Ni
H
, BA
lc

it can be found that the relationship of B and H would be the same as

between and mmf as illustrated in Fig. 2 (b).

Thus in electrical machines, ferromagnetic material is used as core in order

to produce as much as flux as possible in order to produced voltage
(generator) or torque (motor), i.e. 6000 time more as compared to air core.
In most real machines, they operates near knee (nonlinear region) of
magnetization curve in order to maximize flux. This nonlinearity account for
many peculiar behavior explained in future lectures.
Discuss: Example 1-5

18

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

The following equation show that the current in a coil wrapped

around a core produces a magnetic flux in the core.

NiA
BA
lc

This is in some sense analogous to voltage in electric circuit (EC)

producing a current flow. Hence, its possible to define magnetic
circuits (MC).
In EC (V = IR), its the voltage that drives current I. By
analogous, the corresponding quantity in MC is called
magnetomotive force (mmf).
Magnetomotive force is measured in ampere-turns is equal to
effective current flow applied to the core, or

F Ni

19

Like voltage source, mmf has polarity. The polarity can be determined as
in Fig. 3.
In an EC, the applied voltage causes a current I to flow. In MC, the
applied mmf causes flux to be produced.
The relationship between voltage and current is
relationship between mmf and is
where

V IR, similarly, the

= reluctance of circuit,

and measured in ampere-turns/weber.

Just like in EC, conductance is reciprocal of resistance, permeance P is

the reciprocal of

Thus, flux can be expressed as

Fmmf P

Fig. 2: Determining the polarity of

a mmf in a magnetic circuit. 20

Reluctance in a MC obey the same rules as resistance in an EC.

Reluctance is series
and in parallel

Req R1 R2 R3 .....
1
1
1
1

.....
Req R1 R2 R3

The reluctance of the core in Fig. 1:

By comparing with

A
NiA

BA
Ni
lc
lc
A

F
lc

lc
F ,
A

Discuss: Example 1-1

21

ENERGY LOSSES IN A FERROMAGNETIC CORE

HYSTERESIS LOSSES

Consider alternating current as shown in Fig. 4(a)

applied to the winding on the core.
By referring to Fig. 4(b), assuming the initial flux
is zero (point a), as the current increases for the 1st
time path ab.
When the current falls, the flux traces a different
path bcd and later when the current increases
again, the flux traces out path deb.
Note that the amount of flux present in the core
depends on applied current and previous history of
flux.
This dependence on the preceding flux history and
the resulting failure to retrace flux path is called
hysteresis.

Fig. 4:The hysteresis loop

22

Note in Fig. 4(b), when mmf is removed, the flux does not go to zero.
Instead, a magnetic field is left in the core residual flux.
To force the flux to zero, an amount of mmf known as the coercive mmf
must be applied in the opposite direction.
The fact that turning domains requires energy leads to a common type of
energy loss hysteresis loss.

23

Why does hysteresis occur

Fig. 5: (a) Magnetic domain orientated randomly

(b) Magnetic domain lined up in the presence of
external magnetic field.

As the strength of mmf is increased, nearly all the atom and domains in
the iron are lined up with the external field, any further increase in the
mmf can cause only the same flux increase that it would be in free space.
At this point, the iron is saturated with flux.

24

FARADAYS LAW

Faradays law states that if a flux passes through a turn of coil of wire,
a voltage will be induced in the turn of wire that is directly proportional
to the rate of change in the flux with respect to time or in equation form

eind

d
N
dt

This equation assumes that exactly the same flux is present in each
turn of the coil, no flux leaking out.
Faradays law is the fundamental property of magnetic field involved in
transformer operation.

25

EDDY CURRENT LOSSES

A time-changing flux within a ferromagnetic core also induced voltage ,

just the same manner as it would in a wire wrapped around that core.
These voltages cause swirls of current to flow within the core, much like
the eddies seen at the edges of a river. It is the shape of these current
that gives rise to the name eddy currents.
These eddy currents are flowing in a resistive material, so energy is
dissipated which lead into heating the iron core.
The amount of energy lost due to eddy current depend on:

Size of current swirls

Resistivity of the material

Thus, eddy current losses can be reduces by

Broken up the ferromagnetic core into parallel laminations to reduced the current
swirl size. An thin insulating layer is used between lamination to limit eddy
26
current to small area.
Adding silicon to the steel core in increase the resistivity.

Fig. 6: (a) Solid iron core

carrying an ac flux.

(b) Eddy currents are reduced by

splitting the core in half.

(c) Core built up of thin,

insulated laminations.

27
Fig. 7: (a) Voltage induced in a revolving
armature. (b) Large eddy currents are induced .

Fig. 8: (a) Armature built up of thin laminations.

(b) Much smaller eddy currents are induced.

PRODUCTION OF INDUCED FORCE ON A WIRE

A second major effect of a magnetic field on its surrounding is that it

induces a force on a current-carrying wire within the field.
Consider a conductor (wire) present in a uniform magnetic field of flux
density B, pointing into the page. The force induced on the wire is given
by

F i l B

The magnitude of the force is given by the equation

F ilB sin

where is the angle between the wire and the

flux density vector.

The direction of the force is given by the right

-hand rule:

Index finger points in the direction of l.

Middle finger points in the direction of B.
Thumb points in the direction of resultant force F.

Discuss Example 1-7

28
Fig. 8: Force on a current-carrying
wire in a magnetic field

INDUCED VOLTAGE ON A CONDUCTOR MOVING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The third major way in which a magnetic field interacts with its
surrounding is that if a wire with the proper orientation moves through a
magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it as shown in Fig. 9.
The voltage induced in the wire is given by
where

eind v B I

v = velocity of the wire

B = magnetic flu density vector
l = length of conductor in the magnetic field

Vector l point along the direction of the wire

towards the end making the smallest angle
w.r.t. the vector v x B.

The voltage in the wire will be built up so

29

that the positive end is in the direction of the

vector v x B.

Fig. 9: A conductor moving in the

presence of a magnetic field.

Discuss Example 1-8, 1-9.

Fig. 10: The conductor of Example 1-9

30

REAL, REACTIVE AND APPARENT POWER IN SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS

In DC circuit, the power supplied to the DC load is simply the product of

the voltage across the load and the current flowing through it.

P VI

However in AC circuits, power is more complex, because there can be a

phase difference (angle) between the AC voltage and the AC current
supplied to the load.
The instantaneous power is still the product of the instantaneous
voltage and the instantaneous current, but the average power supplied
to the load is affected by the phase angle.
Consider, a single-phase voltage source supplying power to a singlephase load

Z Z

31

Consider, a single-phase voltage source supplying power to a singlephase load

Fig. 11: An AC voltage source

supplying a load Z.

The voltage applied to this load is

v t 2V cos t

where V is the rms value of the voltage applied to the load.

The resulting current flow is

i t 2 I cos t

where I is the rms value of the current flowing through the load.

The instantaneous power supplied to this load at any time is

p t v t i t 2VI cos t cos t

32

The eqn. can be rewrite as

p t VI cos 1 cos 2t VI sin sin 2t

the first term represent the power supplied to the load by component of
current that is in phase with voltage,
while the second term represents the power supplied to the load by the
component of current that is 90o out of phase with voltage.

Fig. 12: The component of power

supplied to a single-phase load.

33

Note that the first term is always positive and produces pulses of power
instead of a constant value. This power is known as real power (P) and
the unit is watts (W).

P VI cos

The second term is positive half of the time and negative half of the
time. So, the average power supplied by this source is zero. This power
is known as reactive power (Q) and the unit is volt-amperes reactive
(VAR).

Q VI sin

Reactive power represents the energy that is first stored and then
released in the magnetic field of an inductor, or in electric field of a
capacitor.
By convention, Q is positive for inductive loads and negative for
capacitive loads.

The apparent power S is the power that appears to be supplied to the

load if the phase angle are ignored.

S VI

The unit is volt-amperes (VA).

34

Other form of power equations

S P jQ
S VI *

Consider

V V and I I

Fig. 13: An inductive load has a

positive impedance angle .

S VI * V I VI
VI cos jVI sin
VI cos jVI sin
P jQ

35

The real, reactive and apparent power supplied to a load are related by
the power triangle.

Fig. 14: The power triangle

S 2 P2 Q2

The quantity of cos is usually known as the power factor of a load.

Its defined as the fraction of the power S that is actually supplying real
power to a load.

P
PF cos
S

36

Discuss Example 1-11.

37