BFC21103 Hydraulics

Chapter 1. Flow in Open

Channel
Siti Nazahiyah Rahmat
nazahiya@uthm.edu.my

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, students should
be able to:
i. Define and explain on types and
states of flow
ii. Identify types of open channels
iii. Define open channel geometries

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Open channel flow is flow of a liquid in a conduit

with a free surface subjected to atmospheric
pressure.
y Free surface
T
Flo
w

x
B
Datum
Figure. Sketch of open channel
geometry

Examples: flow of water in rivers, canals, partially full

sewers and drains and flow of water over land.
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Tahan river
rapids

Stormwater Management and Road

Tunnel (SMART), Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Siberian
meandering river

Practical applications:
a. flow depth in rivers, canals and other conveyance
conduits,
b. changes in flow depth due to channel controls e.g.
weirs, spillways, and gates,
c. changes in river stage during floods,
d. surface runoff from rainfall over land,
e. optimal channel design, and others

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1.1 Flow Parameters and Geometric

Elements
a. Depth of flow y is the vertical measure of water
depth.
Normal depth d is measured normal to the channel
bottom.
d = y cos
For most applications, d y when 10%, e.g. cos 1
= 0.9998.
Free surface

Sw = water surface
Flow
y d
slope
Q
So = bottom
slope

x
Datum

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b. Flow or discharge Q is the volume of fluid passing a

cross-section perpendicular to the direction of flow per
unit time.
Mean velocity V is the discharge divided by the crosssectional area
Q
V
A

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c. Wetted perimeter P is the length of channel

perimeter that is wetted or covered by flowing water.
T = top width
A
P

A = cross sectional
area covered by
flowing water

B = bottom
width

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d. Hydraulic radius R is the ratio of the flow area A to

wetted perimeter P.
A
R
P
e. Hydraulic depth D is the average depth of irregular
cross section.
flowarea A
D

topwidth T
T
A
P
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Table. Open channel

geometries Area
Channel section
A

Top width
T

Wetted
perimeter
P

By

B + 2y

zy2

2zy

2y 1 z2

By +
zy2

B+
2zy

B 2y 1 z2

D2
2 sin2
8

Dsin

T
y
B

Rectangula
r
T
1

Triangular
T

y
B

Trapezoidal
T
D

Circle

Activity 1.1
1
m
2
m

60

3
Find:
m
(a) Top surface width T, flow area A, wetted perimeter
P, and hydraulic radius R.
(b) If Q = 2.4 m3/s, determine the state of flow.
(c) If longitudinal length L = 50 m, find the cost to
construct the channel. Given excavation cost = RM
3/m3 and lining cost =
RM 5/m2.
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(a) Top surface width T, wetted area A, wetted perimeter

P and hydraulic radius R.
z

1
0.5774

tan60

T B 2zy

P B 2y 1 z2

T 3 2 0.5774 2

2
P 3 2 2 1 0.5774

T 5.309m

P 7.619m

A By zy2

A
P

8.309
7.619

A 3 2 0.5774
2 2
A 8.309m2

R 1.091m
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(b) If Q = 2.4 m3/s, determine the state of flow.

Q 2.4
v
0.2888m/s
A 8.309
V
Fr
gD
Re

VR

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(c) If the length of the channel is L = 50 m, find the cost to

construct the channel. Given excavation cost = RM 3/m3
and lining cost = RM 5/m2.
Volume of
excavation

Achannel L

3 3 0.5774 32 50
709.81m3

Unitcost RM3/ m3 709.81

Cost of excavation
RM2129
.42

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Area of
lining

Alining Pchannel L

Alining 3 2 3 1 0.57742 50
Alining 496.41m3

Cost of
lining

Unitcost Alining RM5/ m2 496.41

RM2482
.05

RM2129
.42 RM2482
.05 RM4611.47
Total
cost

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Additional Question for

Assignment #1
1.5 m

1.5 m
1.2
m

1.2
m

3
Find T, A, P, R, and D

0.3
m

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Activity
1.2
1m

A1
A2

2m

A3

A4

2m
1m 2m

4m

Find:
(a) Flow area A
(b) Wetted perimeter P
(c) Hydraulic radius R
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3m

1.2 Types of Open Channel

Prismatic and non-prismatic channels

Prismatic channel is the channel which crosssectional shape, size and bottom slope are
constant. Most of the man-made (artificial)
channels are prismatic channels over long
stretches. Examples of man-made channels are
irrigation canal, flume, drainage ditches, roadside
gutters, drop, chute, culvert and tunnel.
All natural channels generally have varying crosssections and therefore are non-prismatic.
Examples of natural channels are tiny hillside
rivulets, through brooks, streams, rivers and tidal
estuaries.
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Rigid and mobile boundary channels

Rigid channels are channels with boundaries that
is not deformable. Channel geometry and
roughness are constant over time. Typical
examples are lined canals, sewers and nonerodible unlined canals.
Mobile boundary channels are channels with
boundaries that undergo deformation due to the
continuous process of erosion and deposition due
to the flow. Examples are unlined man-made
channels and natural rivers.

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Canals
is usually a long and mildsloped channel built in the
ground, which may be
unlined or lined with stoned
masonry, concrete, cement,
wood or bituminous
material.

Griboyedov Canal, St.

Petersburg, Russia

Terusan Wan Muhammad Saman,

Kedah

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Flumes
is a channel of wood, metal, concrete, or masonry,
usually supported on or above the surface of the
ground to carry water across a depression.

This flume diverts water from

White River, Washington to
generate electricity

Bull Run Hydroelectric Project

diversion flume

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Open-channel flume in
laboratory

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Chute
is a channel having steep slopes.

Natural chute (falls) on the left and man-made logging

chute on the right on the Coulonge River, Quebec,
Canada

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Drop
is similar to a chute, but the change in elevation
is within a short distance.

The spillway of Leasburg Diversion Dam is a

vertical hard basin drop structure designed
to dissipate energy

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Stormwater sewer
is a drain or drain system
designed to drain excess
rain from paved streets,
parkinglots, sidewalks and
roofs.

Storm
sewer

Storm drain receiving urban runof

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1.3 Types and Classification of Open

Channel Flows
Open channel
flow

Steady flow

Uniform flow

Unsteady
flow

Non-uniform
flow

Rapidly-varied
Gradually-varied
flow
flow
Various types of openchannel
flow
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Open channel flow conditions can be characterised with

respect to space (uniform or non-uniform flows) and
time (steady or unsteady flows).
Space - how do the flow conditions change along
the reach of an open channel system.
a. Uniform flow depth of flow is the same
at every section of the flow
dy/dx = 0
b. Non-uniform flow - depth of flow varies along
the flow dy/dx 0

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a. Uniform
flow

b. Non-uniform
flow

y1

Constant wa
ter
depth
x
dy
Depth of flow is the same at every section along the 0
dx
channel,

Depth chang
es
along the
channel
dy
Depth of flow varies at different sections along the 0
dx
channel,
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y2

Time - how do the flow conditions change over

time at a specific section in an open channel
system.
c. Steady flow - depth of flow does not
change/ constant during the time
interval under consideration dy/dt
=0
d. Unsteady flow - depth of flow changes
with time dy/dt 0

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c. Steady
flow

y1

y2

y1 = y2

Time =
Time =
t1
t2
dy
Depth of flow is the same at every time 0
dt
interval,

d. Unsteady
flow
y1

t3
t1
t2

y1 y2 y3

dy
Depth of flow changes from time to 0
dt
time,
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The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes

abruptly over a comparatively short distance.
Examples of rapidly varied flow (RVF) are hydraulic
jump, hydraulic drop, flow over weir and flow under a
sluice gate.
The flow is gradually varied if the depth changes
slowly over a comparatively long distance. Examples
of gradually varied flow (GVF) are flow over a mild
slope and the backing up of flow (backwater).

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RVF GVF RVF

Sluic
e

GVF

Hydraulic
jump

RVF

GVF

RVF

Flow
over weir
Hydraulic
drop

Contraction
below the
sluice

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1.4 State of
Flow
The state or behaviour of open-channel flow is
governed basically by the viscosity and gravity
effects relative to the inertial forces of the flow.
Efect of visco sity - depending on the effect of
viscosity relative to inertial forces, the
flow may be in laminar, turbulent, or
transitional state.
- Reynolds number represents the
effect of viscosity
VRrelative to inertia,
Re

where V is the velocity, R is the hydraulic

radius of a conduit and is the kinematic
viscosity (for water at 20C, = 1.004
106 m2/s, dynamic viscosity = 1.002
Hydraulics
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Ns/m2 and
density = 998.2 kg/m3).
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Re < 500
laminar

the flow is

500 < Re < 12500

transitional

the flow is

Re > 12500 the

VR flow is
Re
turbulent

The flow is laminar if the viscous forces are

dominant relative to inertia. Viscosity will
determine the flow behaviour. In laminar flow,
water particles move in definite smooth paths.
The flow is turbulent if the inertial forces are
dominant than the viscous force. In turbulent flow,
water particles move in irregular paths which are
not smooth.
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Efect of gravity - depending on the effect of gravity

forces relative to inertial forces, the flow
may be subcritical, critical and
supercritical.
- Froude number represents the ratio
of inertial forcesVto gravity forces,
Fr
gD
where V is the velocity, D is the
hydraulic depth of a conduit and g is
the gravity acceleration (g = 9.81 m/s2).

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Fr < 1
, the flow is in
subcritical state
Fr = 1
, the flow is in
critical state
Fr > 1
, the flow is in
supercritical state

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V gD
V gD
V gD

1.5 Regimes of
Flow

A combined effect of viscosity and gravity may

produce any one of the following four regimes of flow
in an open channel:
a.

subcritical - laminar, when Fr < 1 and Re < 500

b. supercritical - laminar , when Fr > 1 and Re <

500
c. supercritical - turbulent, when Fr > 1 and Re >
12500
d. subcritical - turbulent
12500

, when Fr < 1 and Re >

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Assignment
#1

Q1. [Final Exam Sem I, Session 2010/2011]

Justify the difference between:
(a) uniform flow and non-uniform flow
(b) state of flow using Reynolds number Re and Froude
number Fr.
Q2. [Final Exam Sem I, Session 2008/2009]
(a) Define
(i) Wetted perimeter
(ii) Gradually-varied flow
(iii) Non-uniform flow
(iv) Froude number
(b) Explain the differences between canal and sewer.

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Q3. [Final Exam Sem I, Session 2006/2007]

Define
(a) Reynolds number
(b) Froude number
(c) Hydraulic radius
(d) Prismatic channel
(e) Uniform flow
Q4. A discharge of 16.0 m3/s flows with a depth of 2.0 m in a
rectangular
channel of 4.0 m wide. Determine the state of flow
based on
(a) Froude number, and
(b) Reynolds number.
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Q5. A triangular channel of apex angle 120 carries a

discharge of 1573 L/s. Calculate the critical depth.

- End of
Question -

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THANK YOU

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