Why animals need a large surface

area to volume area:

oxygen must be supplied for respiration
heat generated by metabolism must be
lost
waste i.e. CO2 and urea needs to be
removed
cells need to be supplied with nutrients
i.e. Glucose, amino acids and mineral
ions

The bigger the ratio of surface area to

volume the faster the rate of diffusion
Amoeba: simple diffusion across outer
surface since it has a large sa:v
Insects: simple diffusion through
Large organisms
spiracles in its exoskeleton. Sa:v gets
small
develop mass
Human beings: sa:v is very small. The
flow transport
outer surface isn't big enough to allow
systems
enough gases to enter the body.
Features of specialised exchange
Larger organisms need a larger area to
Trachea- supported tube that connects
surfaces:
exchange more substances. Often this is
the lungs to the outside
combined with a transport system to move large surface area to volume ratio speeds
Rib cage- protects the lungs in a bony
substances around the body. Surface areas up the rate of exchange
box
very thin barrier allows materials to cross
are adapted
Intercostal muscles- muscles that move
quickly reduce diffusion time
to make it
the ribs
Partially permeable to allow selected
easier for
Alveoli- air sacs
materials to cross
molecules to
Bronchi- two smaller tubes that the
Movement of the environmental medium
cots from
trachea divides into
e.g. Air to maintain a diffusion gradient
one side to
Bronchioles- smaller tubes going to the
movement of the internal medium e.g.
another.
alveoli
blood to maintain a diffusion gradient
The lungs:
Exhalation (exportation):
Inhalation (inspiration):
diaphragm relaxes and is pushed up by The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles are
Diaphragm contracts to become flatter
airways that allow air in and out of the
displaced organs underneath
and pushes digestive organs down
lungs. They must:
Internal intercostal muscles relax and
External intercostal muscles contract
Large enough to allow enough air slow
ribs fall
to raise ribs
Divide into smaller airways to reach
Volume of chest cavity decreases
Volume of chest cavity increases
the alveoli
Pressure in cavity increases and raises
Pressure in cavity drops below

Strong enough so they don't collapse

above atmospheric pressure air moves
atmospheric pressure then air moves
Flexible to allow movement
out of lungs
into the lungs
Abel to recoil as pressure is changing
Thorax- chest cavity
Roles of tissue:
Smooth muscle- Useful if there are
Cartilage- structural role supports the
harmful substances in the air.
trachea and bronchi holding them open. Elastic fibres- as the smooth muscle
relaxes the elastic fibres coils to their
Smooth muscle- can constrict thus
original size and shape. Dilates the
controlling the flow of air in/out of the
airways.
alveoli.
Goblet cells & glandular tissue- secretes
and traps mucus.
Ciliated epithelium- hair like structures
Tobi Ojo
called cilia which wafts mucus up the
12.3
airway into the throat.

Large organisms are multicellular:

many cells so a greater surface area
Large organisms develop specialised
exchange surfaces

Biology: mrs searles 1

revision cards

Respiration- when
CO2, energy and
H2O is made. If it's
aerobic it takes
place in
mitochondria.
Forms energy in
the form of ATP.
Glucose+oxygen>
CO2+H2O+energy
Examples of specialised exchange
surfaces:
walls of alveoli in the lungs
small intestines nutrients absorbed
liver levels of sugar adjusted
root hairs of plants minerals
absorbed
hyphae of fungi

Trachea and bronchi:

Have similar structures. Both have thick
walls bronchi is narrower.
Walls mostly cartilage
Cartilage forms c-ring in trachea less I
bronchi
Cartilage- glandular tissue, connective
tissue, elastic fibres, smooth muscle, blood
vessels
Contains ciliates epithelium and goblet
cells secrete mucus

Adaption of alveoli:
large surface area
extremely thin
lined with squamous epithelium
kept moist by fluid from epithelial
cells- helps diffusion

Cavity of alveolus:
Low co2 concentration, high O2
concentration
Endothelial cell of capillary:
High co2 concentration, low O2
concentration inside red blood cells

Spirometers:
wear a nose clip- so they don't breathe
through nose and make results invalid
air right seal around mouth piece
disinfect mount piece
fresh air in chamber
Volume in spirometer drops in first minute
because oxygen I'd being used by respiration
and co2 being breathed out is absorbed by
the sodalime. So overall volume goes down.

Histamine:
A drug for allergy. Stops the symptoms of
an allergic reaction. Histamine is released
by cells as part of an allergic reaction.
Histamine binds to the receptors on the
membrane of target cell as it has a
complimentary shape. This triggers a
response inside of the cell it also increases
permeability of capillary. Histamine
suppresses body's natural responses.
Structure of heart:
covered by tough membrane- pericardium
encloses the pericardial fluid
needed to lubricate the movement of heart in
pericardium
left- oxygenated blood, right- deoxygenated
blood
Structure of cardiac muscle;
epicardium is outer layer of the heart wall
endocardium is inner layer
made if epithelial cells and connective tissue
myocardium is middle layer

The SA node is a patch of tissue

located in the heart which generates
electrical activity. The wave of
excitation causes the atria to contract.
The excitation in the av node is
delayed so the atria can fully contract.
Afterwards the wave of excitation
passes down the septum/apex and
spreads up the walls of the ventricle
resulting in the ventricles contracting.

Single circulatory
systems:
1 path to the heart, 1
circuit, closed system
(blood travels in blood
vessels)
Blood pressure reduced
Does not flow quickly
Limits rate at which
oxygen and nutrients
delivered
Cardiac muscle:
Contracts without
fatigue
Appears a striped
under microscope
Contains actin &
myosin proteins
Lots of
mitochondria
Heart is myogenic- initiate its own
contraction
Atria and ventricles have own natural
frequency of contraction
Atrial muscles contract at higher frequency
than ventricles. Inefficient pumping
(fibrillation) could
be caused if all 4
chambers are not
synchronised.

Tidal volume- is the volume of air

when a person is breathing quietly.
Vital capacity- is the maximum
volume of air exchanged from full
expiration to full inspiration.
Residual volume- is the volume of air
that always remains in the lungs even
after the biggest possible exhalation
Dead Slavs if the air in the
bronchioles, bronchi and trachea.

Double circulatory
systems:
2 paths to the heart, 2
circuits, lungs, closed
system, blood flows
through the heat twice in
a single cycle. Humans
have a higher demand for
oxygen.
Heart can increase blood
pressure
Atrium is thin walled and elastic
pumps blood a short distance to the
ventricle, small amount of muscle
Ventricle is thicker muscular walls
pumps blood further to lungs or body
Diastole- the ventricle are relaxed,
the av valves aren't fully open,
semilunar valves are closed

Inspiration reserve volume- Is how much

air can be breathed in I've and above normal
tidal wave volume when you take in a big
breath
Inspiratory reserve volume- is how much
more air can be breathed out over and above
the amount that is breathed in a tidal volume
breath.
A person breathes onto the mouthpiece and
the volume of air in the air chamber
changes. The movement caused by this
change is recorded by the recording pen.

Open circulatory system- blood

not always in vessels
Closed circulatory system- blood
always remains in vessels
Factors that affect the need for
transport system:
Size, sa:v ratio, how active
organism is
Atrial systole- valves are fully open,
atrium is contracting blood flows into
left ventricle, semilunar valves still
closed.
Ventricle systole- av valves are
closed, semilunar valves are open,
ventricles are contacting

Valves prevent back flow

Atrioventricular node (AVN) wave of
Red blood cells- transports oxygen
excitation goes down purkyne tissue.
around the body
At base of septum(apex) excitation
Capillaries- acts as a passage where spreads out across ventricles causing
oxygen and nutrient in blood are
contraction.
delivered to tissue.
ECG- electrocardiogram
Sino atrial node(SAN) generates
Used to measure electrical activity in
electrical activity. Wave of excitation heart. Electrical activity in the heart
spreads through walls of both atria
spread through other surrounding
causes muscles to contract. - atrial
tissues and can be picked up using
systole
sensors on the skin.

Arehythmias:
A change in the rhythm of your heartbeat.
When the beady beats too fast, it's called
tachycardia. When it beats too slow, it's
called bradycardia. Beats can be irregular.
Atrial fibrillation:
This causes the ventricles to contract faster
than normal. When this happens the
ventricles don't have enough time to fill
completely with blood to pump to the lungs
and body.

Artery and related function:

thick walk- stops bursting/withstands
pressure
narrow lumen- to maintain pressure
elastic tissue- allows stretching
elastic recoil- it can maintain its shape
under high pressure
collagen- structure and support
smooth muscle- maintain pressure
smooth endothelium- reduce friction,
allows blood to flow easily

Tissue fluid:
Colourless fluid (no red blood cells)
that is formed from blood plasma by
pressure filtration through capillary
walls (forcing the liquid out needs to
get buried a to cell)
Only small molecules get filtered
Surround all the cells of the body and
all exchanges between blood and cells
occur through it.

Human Lymphatic system:

System of thin tubes that run
throughout body called lymph vessels.
Lymphatic systems jobs: drains fluid
into bloodstream from tissue, filters
lymph, filters blood, fights infections

Picks up ions. Shape changes after 1st molecule

because picking up oxygen making it easier to
pick up more.

Oxygen uptake:
Oxygen diffuses into blood plasma in
the lungs. It enters the red blood cells.
Then it is taken up by haemoglobin
which takes it out of solution thereby
maintains concentration gradient
allowing further oxygen to enter the
cell.

Hydrostatic pressure is generated in

the heart by the ventricle muscles
contracting. Hydrostatic pressure
drops as blood moves away from the
heart because the surface area of the
capillaries are much larger than the
arteries since there are more and
smaller vessels. This means the
pressure is spread and less.

Myoglobin found in muscles. The

speciation curve well to left of
haemoglobin. It is an oxygen store
which enables the muscle to continue
contracting. It only releases oxygen at
a vet low partial pressure of oxygen.

Artery, aorta, arteries, arterioles,

Blood cells: red blood cells (erythrocytes),
capillaries
white blood cells (leucocytes), platelets
Vein:
(cell fragments) help blood clot.
Similar to arteries but transport blood at a Plasma- fluid that carries around all the
lower pressure so they aren't as strong.
water, glucose, amino acids, urea and some
They have three layers, each layer is thinner. of the co2
Capillaries:
Blood - carries materials around the body:
Smallest blood vessels they distribute
plasma 55%, blood cells 45%
oxygenated blood from the arteries out to
Phagocytes/ neutrophiltissue of your body then move deoxygenated Engulf bacteria by phagocytosis.
blood from tissues back to veins.
Lymphocyte- the release of antibodies.

Lymph flows through lymphatic

vessels passes through lymph nodes
where it gains white blood cells and
antibodies. Excess fluid returns to
blood ensures that tissue do not fill
with too much. Tissue fluid build up
is a result of a blockage. This occurs
when the fluid can't get to the lymph
and be drained.
1. At low pO2 it is hard for oxygen
molecules to attach
2. As pO2 rises and some oxygen
molecules attach to haemoglobin it
becomes easier to attach. Explains
shape of curve.
3. As it becomes saturated it becomes
more difficult for oxygen to attach to
haemoglobin.
Foetal haemoglobin has more
Bohr shift:
This is whenCO2 level increases
(pCOs) the haemoglobin dissociation
curve shifts to the right.
Haemoglobin is more efficient at
releasing oxygen since tissue becomes
more active and the rate of respiration
increase. Tissue receives more oxygen .
When CO2 decreases oxygen is picked
up by haemoglobin more efficiently.

Partial pressure of oxygen- the

concentration of oxygen available.
Percentage saturation- represents the
amount of oxygen being carried by
oxyhemoglobin i.e. Low saturation
haemoglobin has been used in other
cells.
Haemoglobin: globular protein.
Contains 4 polypeptide chains.
Contains 4 harm groups for binging
O2.

oxygen than normal haemoglobin

(have high affinity for oxygen) in
order to survive and receive oxygen
from the placenta. After baby is born
haemoglobin goes to normal. If
women and baby both have foetal
haemoglobin the baby wouldn't get
enough oxygen.
Dissociation curve is to the left if
maternal.
CO2 transport:
blood carries CO2 partly in plasma
combined with haemoglobin in
rbcs forming
carbaminohaemoglobin
partly as hydgencarbonate HCO3
ions

Haemoglobin consists 4 subunits (haem

group- Fe2+ & polytides) The haem
group can hold oxygen it attracts it. If
theres a low partial pressure/oxygen
tension (pO2) it hard to associate with
O2 (1st molecule) but after the molecule
it causes a slight change in the shape of
haemoglobin which makes it easier to
attract 2 more O2. when it comes to the
4th subunit its hard to reach 100%

saturation but it eventually does. When

oxygen attached its called
oxyheamoglobin. Cells need oxygen for
respiration so when its need o2 is
released from oxyhaemoglobin this is
dissociation. Also to maintain a steep
diffusion gradient haemoglobin takes up
o2 so more oxygen can diffuse into the
blood. Fetal haemoglobin needs to be
higher so it can pick o2 from envirome

The air pressure is lower at high

altitudes than at sea level. This causes
shortness of breath. To compensate
more rbcs are made from 45% to 70%.
This acclimatisation takes about a
week. People living permanently at
altitudes have adaptations: broader
chests, larger lung capacity, larger
heart, more haemoglobin.

Functions in plants:
Leaves: trapping sunlight and
converting it into energy. Key role in
photosynthesis . Controls the entry of
gaseous exchange.
Stems: transport system move things
around. Support/structure. Xylem and
phloem.
Roots: absorb water/ dissolved
minerals. Roots anchor plant.

Vascular tissue in stem: Vascular

bundles found at edge of stem. Xylem
are found towards the inside. Phloem
towards the outside. Cambium between
it.

Vascular tissue in root: vas tissue

distributed throughout plant. Xylem are
phloem found together in vascular
bundles. `vas bundle in the centre,
structure gives strength.

In the arteries the blood plasma

moves out of the blood and forms
tissue fluid. The hydrostatic pressure
is greater than water potential. This is
why the relative pressure is higher at
the arteries than the veins.

Structure: Xylem tissue

Tubes- water dissolved minerals
carrying tissue in the vascular bundle
these are vessel elements (verticle
chain of dead cells) / tracheids.
Fibres- to help support plant
Living parenchyma cells.
Has perforation plates.
Cell walls impregnated with lignin.
Pits/ no content.

How is CO2 transported?

CO2 diffuses into the red blood cells and
combines with water with the help of
carbonic anhydrase (enzyme). The product
of this reaction is carbonic acid which
dissociates releasing hydrocarbonate ions
out of the blood cell. And CL enter the cell
(maintains charge/CL shift) Haemoglobonic
acid is formed. Additionally
oxyhaemoglobin enters cell and dissociates
releasing o2 to blood plasma.

Carbon monoxide:
Carbon monoxide can combine with
haemoglobin meaning O2 will no longer be able
to this is cause carbon monoxide has a higher
affinity. This can cause problems with the
transport of oxygen.

Training at Altitude:

Long-distance races are dominated by African

athletes who spend most of their lives at altitude
and whose bodies get used to making the most
of the oxygen. When the body has to make a
limited supply of oxygen it produces more rbcs.
Oxygen is delivered to muscles.

Transport in multicellular plants:

Theres two distinct parts: leaves
site to photosynthesis, roots absorb
water. They need to be connected
this is done by the vascular bundle
which goes through the roots up
the stem into the leaves. Strength/
support.

Vascular tissue in leaf: form midrib and

veins in leaves. Two major groups:
dicotyledons, monocotyledons. Xylem on
top of the phloem.

Parenchyma- living tissue made of thin

walled prenchyma cells, the most
abundant type of cell in plant body.
Function is to heal and regenerate new
cells also for photosynthesis storage.
Collenchyma- tissue for strengthening
plants.
Solmenchyma- tissue for strengthening,
often described as fibres and can be
long and tapered.

Structure: Phloem
Has sieve tube elements, elongated
structures, cells are living contain small
amount of cytoplasm within membrane,
cells have some mitochondria, no nucleus,
golgi, ribosomes. Each have perforated end
walls sieve plates.
Companion cells carry out functions which
sieve tubes cant cause of lack of organelles.
Materials pass through plasmodesmata,
link two cells.

Xylem functions:
Narrow lumen increase height,
water rises (capillary action)
Long cells arranged continuos
column
Cell walls thickened(lignin) dont
collapse
Dead cells no cytoplasm/nucleus
Annular, spiral thickening allows
elongation/ bending.

Phloem structure:
nucleus & many organelles in Ccells
allows space
Cellulose walls- strength/ bursting
Elements elongated and arranged
continuous column
Peforated walls allows water flow
Companion cells many mitochondria
ATP for translocation.
Can flow either way
3 explanations to move water up the
stem: root pressure
Because the xylem has a lower water
potential water is pushed up by metres.
However its not enough if push water to
the top of a large plant.

Water uptake:
Epidermis has root hairs, minerals absorbed
by active transport using ATP. Minerals
reduce WP of cytoplasm. WP in cell was
lower than soil. Water is taken up across
membrane by osmosis. 3 pathways for
water in cells: apoplast, symplast and
vacuolar. Before water gets into the xylem
it travels through the cortex and central
structure.

Apoplast: water between cellulose in

cell walls. Water moves through
spaces. Water doesnt pass through
plasma membrane. Dissolved mineral
ions & salt can be carried.
Symplast: water enters cytoplasm
through plasma membrane. Passes
between cells through plasmodesmata.
Water can flow through linked cells.

Capillary action: forces also attract the

water molecules to the side of the xylem
adhesion. The narrowness of xylem means
that this can pull water up the xylem.
Transpiration pull: water molecules are
attracted to each other by forces of cohesion.
Molecules leave the leaf by evaporation and
the molecules are held together is pulled up
like a chain causing tension.
Water evaporates from guard cells so
water moves in from neighbouring cells.

Transpiration: the loss of water by

evaporation from the upper parts of the
plant.
1. Stomata occurs mainly in leaves
& accounts for 90% water lost.
2. Cuticle waxy external layer
limits water loss account 10%
3. Lenticils loosely packed cells on
surface through water is lost.

Plants living in dry, arid places have adaptations Translocation:

to reduce water loss. These are called
Phloem transport more sugars and other
xerophytes.
chemicals made by plant (assimilates).
Adaptations: hairs limit air movement
Transported in live cells ex. Sieve &
Leaf rolled reduction in surface area.
Thick waxy cuticle reduces water loss through companion cells.
cuticles.
Source: sugar production site
Stomata in pits moist air trapped close to the area
of water loss reducing rate of water loss. Stamatas' photosynthesis, starch breakdown in
storage area where sucrose is released.
closed during light.
Reduced no. stomata reduces no. of pores
Sink: sugars uptake site, growing areas,
through which water loss occurs.
storage areas, fruits+seeds where sucrose is
Deep root roots tap into lower water.

removed and sent to xylem.

Leaf structure:
Phototropism is a growth response which
allows shoots to grow towards light.
Large leaf surface area is held perpendicular to
the light source.
Leaves are thin so there's few cell layers to
absorb light.
Leaf mosaic is arrangement of leaves in a
pattern which minimises overlapping.
Shoot system holds leaves in optimum position
Etiolation causes rapid elongation of
internodes.

Phloem loading at source: ATP is

used by companion cells to actively
transport H+ ions out of cytoplasm into
tissue. This sets up a diffusion gradient
and the H+ ions diffuse back in.
Proteins enable H+ ions to bring
sucrose molecules into companion cells
(co transporter proteins). As the
sucrose builds it diffuses into sieve
elements through plasmodesmata.

Endodermis has a waterproof strip called

casparian strip. This blocks apoplast
pathway forcing water to go through
symplast pathway. Endodermis moves
minerals into xylem by active transport.
WP in xylem decreases and water moves
in (osmosis).
Casparian strip controls substance by
forcing water into cytoplasm, creates
water potential in xylem, stops back flow
(via apoplast pathway)

Factors affecting transpiration

rate:
Number of leaves
Number, size, position of stomata
Presence of cuticle
Light
Temperature: rate of evaporation,
diffusion
Relative humidity
Air movement + water availability
Mass flow:
Movement of water into phloem.
Pressure forces phloem sap to move
toward the sink.
Mass flow carries substances along
the phloem it can occur in either
direction but goes down hydrostatic
pressure gradient.
Source- builds pressure
Sink reduces pressure