Quantitative Research

Approach and Sampling

Dr. J. Teye

The Main Preoccupation of

Quantitative Researchers
Quantification is preoccupied with
measurement, causality, generalization and
replication.
Measurement aims at determining specifically
how much or how many of an item under
consideration exists.
Causality (determination of relationships
between variables)
Generalisation and replication.

The Process of Quantitative

Research
It follows a deductive theory.
1 Theory or set of ideas
2 Hypotheses or set of concerns
3 Research design
4 Measures of concepts: operationalization
5 Select research sites
6 Select respondents: sampling
7 Questionnaire administration or collect data
8 Process data
9 Analyse data
11. Interpret data: findings and conclusion
11 Write up findings and conclusions ( Check whether analysis
confirms theory)

Questionnaire Surveys
Survey research is primarily aimed at collecting self-report
information about a population.
It is one of the commonest methods of collecting
quantitative data .
Though can be used for qualitative data as well, it is
mostly for quantitative data.

Procedure
Design Questionnaire and administer
By : Post, mail, email, face to face (structured
interviewing)

Advantages of the self completion

questionnaire
Low cost
Speed
More convenient for respondents since they
will be completed at the respondents own
time
Easy to interpret due to standardization

Disadvantages of selfcompletion questionnaire

No room for the researcher to prompt the respondent if faced
with difficult questions.
Researchers cannot also probe the respondent to elaborate on
some of answers.
Respondents are able to read the whole questionnaire before
answering the first question, thereby defeating the
independent status of each question.
Researcher cannot be sure whether the right person actually
answered the questionnaire.
Questionnaires may also suffer from low response rates
either due to respondent fatigue or some questions may not
be clear

DESIGNING
QUESTIONNAIRE

A: Planning Stage
This entails deciding on:
What information to collect
Whom to collect the information from
Method of sampling
What type of research assistants or enumerators to use
Method of data analysis

Questionnaire
B. Field Operations Stage
Training of enumerators/Field assistants
Pilot surveys. This is an exploratory survey designed to
test the suitability of a questionnaire or test a target groups
attitudes or reactions to a proposed study.
Actual data collection
C. Final Stages
Editing and Coding
Processing the Data
Analysis of data

Practical issues on how to

design a questionnaire
1. Decide on the information required: This is based
on your objectives and research questions.
2. Decide on question content.
3. Develop the question wording (open-ended or
closed ended)
4. Put questions into a meaningful order and format.
5. Check the length of the questionnaire.
6. Pre-test the questionnaire.
7. Develop the final survey form

Designing questionnaires
The purpose of the research must be stated and there must
be clear instructions about how to respond.
Do not cramp presentation, just because you want to make
questions shorter.
Clear presentations: You must use a consistent style, fonts
etc. Where questions are not applicable (Go to must be
used).
It is preferred to use vertical formant in closed answers,
but sometimes this is not possible when there are so many
questions.

Questionnaire
Use of likert scale e.g. You like the
university . Strongly agree- Agreeundecided- disagree- strongly disagree.
Order of questions: Sensitive questions to
the end

Rules on how to ask questions

Avoid ambiguous and technical terms

Avoid long questions
Avoid double-barrelled questions
Also avoid general questions; be specific
Leading questions must also be avoided
Avoid questions that include so many negatives. E.g. State why you do not like the
idea of not attending lectures?
Correct question: State why you like attending lectures always.

Grid system can be used when one wants to ask several questions about the same issu e.

Example: List the names of all persons of the household who usually live
here.
Note: Code fo relationship to HH head: 1 =Head ; 2=Spouse/Partner ; 3 =
Child/adopted child;
4 = Grandchild; 5 = Niece/nephew; 6 =
Father/mother; 7 = Sister/brother; 8 = Grandparent; 9 = Other relative
(specify). .............. 10. Not related (specify).........

Types of questions
Open-ended (advantages and
disadvantages)
Close-ended

Sampling Techniques `
Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses
to gather people, places, or things to study.
Sampling is necessarily because we cannot
investigate the entire population

Basic concepts
Population:
Sampling frame: The listing of all units in the population
from which the sample is to be selected. Sometimes the
sampling frame is not available.
Probability sample: A sample that has been selected
using random selection procedure so that each unit in the
population has an equal chance of being selected.
Non-probability sample:
Probability and non-probability sampling

Simple Random sampling

Simple random sample is the most basic form of
probability sample. It gives each unit of the target
population a known and equal probability of selection.
Steps:
Define the population from which sample will be selected.
Select a sampling frame and decide on your sample size
(n)
Draw your sample for investigation. This can be done by
using the lottery method, or by use of a table of random
numbers or computer generated numbers.
Strengths: Randomness, simple to use
Weaknesses: Sampling frame; Heterogeneous population

Systematic Sampling
The first sampling unit is selected using a random number
of tables. All other units are selected systematically.
To arrive at a systematic sample, we simply calculate the
desired sampling fraction. e.g. if there are 100 units and we
want to sample 20 of them then we divide 100 by 20 and
get the sampling fraction 5. We then select every 5th unit.
Do not pre arrange the elements in a way that will
influence the selection process.
Method can be used even when there is no sampling frame.
However, the technique may not be useful if there is
inherent ordering of the sampling frame

Stratified sampling
Sample frame is first divided into subgroups or strata. A simple random sampling
is then used to select units from each strata.
3 key questions:
-The bases of stratification (age, sex,
gender).
-Number of strata
- Sample sizes within strata

Sample sizes within strata

Assuming A= 1000
B = 9000
And we want a sample size 1000
Sample size/Total population =
1000/10000=0.1
Select A=1000X0.1 = 100
B=9000X0.1 = 900

Multi-Stage Sampling
This involves the selection of a sample of a
sample.
The units are first grouped into a number of larger
units (groups or clusters) from which a number of
groups are selected. In the second stage, individual
members are selected from selected clusters based
on a simple random technique.
For instance, if we want to select 400 secondary
school students for a study on intention to travel
outside Ghana

Cluster Sampling/ Area

Sampling
The method is just like the multi-stage
sampling, but then at the first stage, we
make conscious efforts to group the units
into clusters that fall within the same area.
Useful in dealing with dispersed population
and also ensure representation
Again in some cluster sampling, all units is
the selected cluster may be investigated.

MULTI-PHASE SAMPLING
Here, some facts which are considered basic
are collected from all members of the
sample in the first stage.
In the second stage, only some of the
members are asked more detailed questions.

Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience/ Accidental sampling

Snowball sampling technique
Purposive/Judgemental sampling
Quota sampling

Analyzing Quantitative Data

Editing
Coding
Data Processing ( Using SPSS)
Analysis (using SPSS)
Interpreting

Statistics
Descriptive statistics
Inferential statistics
Variables: Dependent vrs Independent
Descriptive: Mean, Mode, Media, Cross
tabulations, percentages.

Source: Field Survey, 2012

Socio-Demographic Characteristics

Frequency

Percentage

Male

76

66.1%

Female

39

33.9%

Total

115

100.0

18-22

15

13.0

23-27

7.8

28-32

25

21.8

33-37

25

21.8

38-42

13

11.3

43-47

10

8.7

48-52

7.8

53-57

4.3

58+

3.5

Total

115

100.0

Gender

Age

Age
Willingness
repatriated

to

be No
Yes

Total

18 - 33 34 - 49 50 65 Total
Count
23
11
1
35
% within 59.0% 30.6% 10.0% 41.2%
age
Count
16
25
9
50
% within 41.0% 69.4% 90.0% 58.8%
age
Count
39
36
10
85
% within 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
age

Correlation and Regression

Analysis
Correlation
--Positive vrs negative
---Interpretation of coefficient of correlation
---Testing for the significance of coefficient of
correlation
---Coefficient of determination
----Regression analysis

. Pearson Product Moment correlation , Regression

Question
A medical geographer is interested in
establishing the degree of the relationship
between number of districts and number of
hospitals in six randomly selected
administrative regions in the Republic of
Zumata. The table below summarizes the
data he obtained from the field.

Name of
Region
Ahinkwa

Number of
Districts
4

Number of
Hospitals
4

Nsutapong

Akpo

Kom

Katedom

Sikabeng

Calculate the Pearsons Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)

between number of districts and number of hospitals and interpret
your answer.
Test for the significance of the correlation coefficient at 5% level of
significance.
Compute the coefficient of determination for the data and interpret
your answer.
Fit a linear regression model to estimate the number of hospitals for a
given number of districts.
Using your model, predict the number of districts in a region with 12
hospitals.