MEEG 5113

Set 2

Vibration Analysis
All real engineering structures exhibit some amount of energy
dissipation. A helical spring in the suspension system of an
automobile will dissipate some energy due to the internal interaction
of grains of steel within the spring. A leaf spring adds friction
between the leaf elements to the internal energy dissipation. While
both of these do aid the damping effect in a suspension system, they
are not significant because of the presence of the shock absorber.
At other times these internal effects are the only energy dissipating
means available. One example of this situation is the cable used in the
tether satellite experiments conducted jointly by the United States and
Italy in the late 1990s. These experiments investigated the possibility
of using a single cable attached to a controlled mass as an alternative
to solar cells for generating electricity on future space flights.
By dragging a conductor through the magnetic field of the earth, it is
possible to create an electric current which will provide power to 5the

Vibration Analysis
spacecraft. One major point of concern related to the potential problem
that drag on the approximately sixty miles of cable might create a skip
rope effect that would lead to instability and/or breaking of the 0.5 mm
diameter cable.
This situation was compounded by the fact that the only available
energy dissipation was the movement between the wire and the
insulation. Fortunately, this small amount of damping proved to be
sufficient enough to prevent any problems.
As will be seen as the equations are developed, most engineering
systems exhibit only a small amount of damping even thought they
may be extremely large and complex. Once again, this amount of
damping is a built-in characteristic that comes about from the materials
and construction methods employed. It is the result of effects such as
friction between connected elements, internal friction that occurs
during deformation, and windage.
6

Vibration Analysis
Because the amount of damping is generally small, it is acceptable to
ignore its presence when determining the vibrational characteristics of
the system. However, the need to know the amplitude of vibration
requires that the damping be included. This is especially true when the
damping effect is large.
Due the complex nature of most engineering systems, it is generally
difficult to determine or estimate damping exactly especially due to the
interaction of these damping effects. This situation can be dealt with by
studying each type damping individually and then determining which
type of damping dominates in the system of interest. This procedure
generally results in the ability to do an adequate analysis.
The most common types of damping are viscous, dry friction, and
hysteretic. Hysteretic (or structural) damping arises in structural
elements due to hysteresis losses in the material. The type and amount
7
of damping has a large effect on the dynamic response level.

Vibration Analysis
Viscous damping is a very common form of damping which is found in
many engineering systems such as instruments and automobiles. The
viscous damping force is proportional to the difference in the velocity
of the ends of the damping element and opposes the motion. This
makes the viscous damping force a linear continuous function of the
velocity.
As the equations that result from analysis of viscous damping are the
simplest mathematical treatment, other
forms of damping are expressed in the
form of an equivalent viscous damper.
For the damped SDOF system shown
to the right, the damping force is equal
to the damping coefficient times the
velocity as shown in the free body
diagram.

Vibration Analysis
The equation of motion is

& cx& kx 0
mx&

For the damped vibration case, the solution still has the form which
repeats itself every second derivative with a negative coefficient.
However, the complex exponential form is the easiest to work with
and will be used here. This means the equation for the displacement,
x(t) will have the form
x(t) Xe st
Differentiating twice and substituting
the results into the equation of motion
yields
(ms 2 cs k ) Xe st 0
As X = 0 is a trivial solution and est 0
for all time, the quadratic in s is solved
for the roots.

10

Vibration Analysis
The roots are
Hence

s1,2 c
2m
s1t

4km
2m

x(t) X1e X 2e

s2 t

where X1 and X2 are arbitrary constants which are found by using the
initial conditions. The system response depends on both the algebraic
sign of c and whether c2 is greater than,
less than, or equal to 4km.
If c is positive, x(t) will decrease in
amplitude over time. If c is negative,
x(t) will increase in amplitude over
time meaning the system is unstable. If
c2 is less than 4km, x(t) will oscillate.
If c2 is equal to or greater than 4km,
x(t) will not oscillate.

11

Vibration Analysis
To establish that these effects do occur, substitute the values for s1 and
s2 into x(t) and manipulate the resulting expression as follows:

s1t

s2 t

x(t) X1e X 2e X1e

2m

4km
2m

2m

X 2e

4km

2m

This equation must be evaluated for each of the three possibilities. To

accomplish this, the transitional value of c2 = 4km is used to define the
critical damping coefficient, cc, which represents the value of damping
where oscillation ceases. This yields
2
km
cc 2 km 2
2 m
m
To eliminate the need to have a different equation for every possible
combination of m, c, and k, the damping ratio, , is defined as

c c c c 2 m
cc 2 m
2m

12

Vibration Analysis
This allows the expression for x(t) to be rewritten as follows:

x(t) X1e

x(t) e

2 2

2 t

X 2e

2 2

OR
t

[ X1e

X 2e

Case 1: Underdamped (0 < 1)

For this case, the exponents involving 2 1 are complex and x(t) will
oscillate for at least a short time, depending on the value of . Eulers
identity allows the complex exponential terms to be rewritten in the
following manner:
e i cos i sin
Substitution of this equivalence into the equation for x(t) yields
13

Vibration Analysis
x(t) e
x(t) e

[ X1e

it 1

X 2e

it 1

OR

[ X1 cos( t 1 ) i sin( t 1 )
2

X 2 cos(t 1 ) i sin( t 1 ) ]
2

x(t) e

OR

(
X

X
)
cos(

t
1

i
(
X

X
)sin(

t
1

)
1
2
1
2

Since x(t) is a real quantity (i.e. it can be felt and observed), the values
for X1 and X2 must be defined in such a way as to produce a real value
for x(t). This means that X1 and X2 must be complex conjugates or
X1 = a - ib

X2 = a + ib

Substituting this result into the equation for x(t) gives

14

Vibration Analysis
x(t) e

2a cos( t 1 ) 2b sin(t 1 )
2

It is also convenient to define the damped natural frequency as

d 1 2
Substituting this definition into the equation for x(t) yields
x(t) e t Acos d t B sin d t
x(t) is a harmonic
function that decays
exponentially with time
as shown in the figure
to the right. The values
for A and B depend on
the initial conditions
and the decay rate on .

15

Vibration Analysis
A more compact form for x(t) can be had by including a phase angle
as shown below
x(t) e t X sin( d t )
x(t) e t X cos( d t

where

From the system

response shown, it is
easily seen that both
the initial displacement
and velocity were
positive and that was
small enough to allow
complete oscillations

OR
( ))
2

A2 B 2

and

e t X cos( d t )
tan

B
A

16

Vibration Analysis
to occur before reaching a level that can be considered effectively
zero.
There are three things about any transient response that are important.
These are 1) rise time which indicates how quickly the system
response reaches a specified percentage of its maximum value, 2)
maximum value, 3) settling time which indicates how quickly the
system response decays to within a specified percentage above the
equilibrium or steady-state
value. These values have
an impact on one another
and it is important to know
what range is acceptable
for each when designing a
system.
17

Vibration Analysis
Shown below are plots of the damped transient response of the same
system with increasingly amounts of damping. Notice how the
maximum value and settling time both decrease as increases. But the
amount of energy needed to begin moving the system also increases
with damping.
Vibrational Motion
1

Amplitude

0.5

-0.5
-1
0

6
Time

10

18

19

Vibration Analysis
Case 2: Critically damped ( = 1)
For this case, the roots are real and equal which means the exponents
involving 2 1 are zero and x(t) will simply decay exponentially
back to the equilibrium or steady-state value.

s1t

s2 t

x(t) X1e X 2e X1e

x(t) X1e

2m

2m

OR

2 2

2 t

OR

4km

X 2e

2m

X 2e

2 2

4km

2m

x(t) e t [ X1 X 2t ]
20

Vibration Analysis
Vibrational Motion
1

Amplitude

0.8
0.6

0.4
0.2
0
0

Time

21

Vibration Analysis
Case 3: Overdamped ( > 1)
For this case, the roots are real and distinct which means the
exponents involving 2 1 are positive, real numbers and x(t) will
simply decay exponentially back to the equilibrium or steady-state
value but at a rate that is slower than the critical damping case.

s1t

s2 t

x(t) X1e X 2e X1e

x(t) X1e

2m

2m

OR

2 2

2 t

OR

X 2e

4km

2m

X 2e

2 2

4km

2m

1 t
1 t

x(t) e [ X1e
X 2e
]
t

22

Vibration Analysis
To understand what happens to x(t) as increases, each exponent
needs to be examined.

2
1 t

lim 1 e
2

2
1 t

lim 1 e
2

1
0

23

Vibration Analysis
Vibrational Motion

Amplitude

1
0.5

0
-0.5
-1
0

0.5

1.5

Time

24

25

Vibration Analysis
The transient response can be used to determine the amount of
damping present in a single degree-of-freedom model of a system by
imparting an initial displacement and/or velocity to the system and
monitoring the amplitude of the response.
As shown below, a single degree-of-freedom was disturbed from
equilibrium and the amplitude of the motion plotted versus time. The
motion is given by
x(t) e t X sin( d t )
The maximum value
will occur when
sin(dt ) 1
And the period, d, is
2
d 1 2
f d d 1 2

26

Vibration Analysis
Therefore,

x(tI ) e
x(tII ) e

But,

t1

tII

tII tI d tI

Substituting yields,
tI
XI X e

X
sin(

d tI )

AND

X sin( d tII

Xe

tI

Xe

tII

XI
X II

2
2
1

AND

X II X e

(tI

Dividing XI by XII yields

XI e
X II

2
1

27

Vibration Analysis
Taking the natural logarithm of each side gives the logarithmic
decrement, , as
ln X I 2
X II
1 2
Solving for yields,

2 1

4 2 2

OR

2 (4 2 2 ) 2
OR

2
2
(4 )
2

If is small, it is possible
to use

2

28

Vibration Analysis
However, if is small enough that 1 2 is approximately 1, the
difference between XI and XII is likely to be small enough that it
cannot be measured accurately. In this case instead of using two
successive peaks, use two peaks that are p cycles apart. This changes
the definition for tII to
tII tI p d tI 2 p 2
1
And the equation for
becomes

2
(4 p 2 2 )
2

Which for small can be

written as

2 p

29

Vibration Analysis
Even if is large enough that 1 2 cannot be set equal to 1, good
accuracy for the estimate of can be obtained using the approximate
equation as shown below.
As seen in the figure, the error in the estimate of is small up to a
value of of about 0.45 or 0.5.
Damping Ratio vs. Logarithmic Decrement
1

Damping Ratio

0.8
0.6

Exact
Approx.

0.4
0.2
0
0

12

Logarithmic Decrement

16

20

30

31

Vibration Analysis
Given - The machine shown below weighs 3600 lb and rests on a set
of vibration isolators. As the machine is lowered onto the vibration
isolators, the four springs (one on each corner) each deflect 3 inches.
Determine the undamped natural frequency of vibration, , and the
stiffness of each spring. What should the damping coefficient for this
set of isolators be if a damper is located with each spring and the
damped natural frequency of vibration, d, is to be 10% less than ?
Solution Since all four springs deflect the same amount, the springs
are in parallel and k in the figure
represents the sum of the individual
stiffnesses. Therefore, the value of k
can be found using
k W 3600 lb 1200 lb / in.
x
3 in.

32

Vibration Analysis
Each spring has a stiffness of
k 1200 lb / in. 300 lb / in.
4
and the undamped natural frequency is

k
m

Wx
Wg

g
x

OR

2
(32.174

12)
in
./
s

128.696 s 2 11.34 s1
3 in.

The damped natural frequency, d, is to be

90% of so it has a value of 10.21 s-1.
The damping coefficient for the set must
be found using the definitions for the
critical damping coefficient and d.

33

Vibration Analysis
The critical damping coefficient for the set is found using
cc 2 km 2 kW
g
OR

cc 2 (1200 lb / in.)(36002lb)
(32.17412 in./ s )
OR

cc 11189.16 lb s 2 / in.2 105.78 lbs / in.

2

The damping ratio for the set is found using

d 1
1 d

2

OR
2

1 0.92 0.19

OR

0.436

34

Vibration Analysis
The damping coefficient for the set is found using

c c cc
cc
OR

c 0.436 105.78 lbs / in.

OR

c 46.11 lb s / in.
Each damper needs a damping coefficient of 11.53 lb-s/in.

35

36

Vibration Analysis
Given A light rigid rod of length L is pinned at O and has a body of
mass m attached at the other end as shown. A spring and viscous
damper are connected in parallel and attached to the rod at a distance
a from the pivot. The system is set up in a horizontal plane.
Assuming that the damper is adjusted to provide critical damping,
obtain the motion of the rod as a function of time if it is rotated
through a small angle 0 and then released. Given that 0 = 2o and
that the undamped natural frequency of the system is 3 rad/s,
calculate the displacement 1 s after release.
If the damping is reduced to 80%
of its critical value, calculate the
logarithmic decrement for the
system.
37

Vibration Analysis
Solution If the rod is rotated slightly in clockwise direction, the
spring and damper will exert a restoring force which is vertically
upward and they will create a counter clockwise moment about O
equal to
& mL2&
&
ka 2 ca 2 & IO&
OR

& ca 2 & ka 2 0
mL2&
For the critical damping case, the solution has the form of

(t) ( A Bt) e t
To determine A and B we need
(0) 0 ( A B(0)) e (0) A
AND

&(0) 0 ( A B(0)) e (0) Be (0)

OR

B O

38

Vibration Analysis
Therefore,

(t) 0 (1 t ) e t

For 0 = 2o, = 3 rad/s, and t = 1 s,

(1) 2o (1 3) e 3 0.4o
The logarithmic decrement is given by
ln X I 2 2
X II
1
So if is 0.8, is

2 2 2 (0.8) 2
1
1 (0.8)
OR

5.027 8.38
0.6

39

40

Vibration Analysis
Given Shown below is the schematic representation of a drop
hammer forge. This system is composed of an anvil (which weighs
5,000 N and is mounted on a foundation that has a stiffness of 5 x 106
N/m and a viscous damping coefficient of 104 N-s/m) and a drop
hammer called the tub which weighs 103 N. During a particular
operation the tub falls 2 m before striking the anvil. If the anvil is at
rest prior to impact by the tub, determine the response of the anvil after
impact. Assume the coefficient of
restitution between the anvil and
the tub is 0.4.
Solution The first task is to
determine the velocity of the tub
just prior to impact and the
velocities of both the tub and anvil
just after impact.

41

Vibration Analysis
To determine these velocities, we use the principle of conservation of
momentum with the tub velocity before and after impact represented
by vt1 and vt2, respectively. The velocity of the anvil before and after
impact are given by va1 and va2, respectively. The principle of
conservation of momentum states

M(va2 - va1 ) = m(vt2 vt1 )

Both va1 and vt1 have values which
are either known or can be easily
found. As the anvil is initially at
rest, va1 is zero. The velocity of the
tub just prior to impact is found
using

mv2t1 = mgh

42

Vibration Analysis
Or the value for vt1 is
vt1 2gh 29.80665 2 6.261m / s
Substituting these values for vt1 and va1 into the momentum equation
yields
5000 v 0 1000 6.261 v
t2
9.80665
9.80665 a2
- OR 510.2041va2 638.877 102.041vt 2
The definition of the coefficient of
restitution is
va2 vt 2

r va2 vt 2 0.4
0 6.261

va1 vt1

43

Vibration Analysis
- OR va2 vt 2 2.504
Solving these two equations simultaneously yields
va2 1.461m / s AND vt 2 1.0435 m / s
Thus the initial conditions for the anvil are
x(0) 0 AND x&(0) 1.461m / s
The damping coefficient is equal to

c
1000
2 k M 2 510 6 5000
9.80665

0.098995

44

Vibration Analysis
The undamped and damped natural frequencies are found using

510
98.995 rad / s
5000
9.80665
6

k
M

AND

d n 1 98.025 rad / s
2

The displacement of the anvil is given

by
x(t) e

&
x0 cosd t x0 n x0 sin d t
d

nt

OR

x(t) e

nt

x&0 sin t
d
d

45

46