Geomagnetism: Lecture 2

Sources:
1. http://www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/
2. http://geomag.org/index.html
3. Gubbins, Nature, 2008.

Magnetization

Induced magnetization, Ji. When a material is exposed to a

magnetic field H, it acquires an induced magnetization. These are
related through the magnetic susceptibility, .

J i = H.

Factors affecting the magnetic susceptibility include:

The electron spin.
Number of electrons within the outer shell - pair or odd?

Remnant magnetization, Jr. The remnant of past magnetic field

that have acted on the material.

Magnetization

Three types of magnetic materials:

Paramagnetic
Diamagnetic
Ferromagnetic

Magnetization
Diamagnetic substance:
Acquisition of SMALL induced magnetization OPPOSITE to the
applied field.
The magnetization depends linearly on the applied field and
reduces to zero on removal of the field.

Magnetization
Paramagnetic substance:
The susceptibilities of paramagnetic substances
are SMALL and POSITIVE.
The magnetization depends linearly on the applied field and
reduces to zero on removal of the field
Can only be observed at
relatively low temperatures.
The temperature above
which paramagnetism is no
longer observed is called
the Curie Temperature.

Magnetization
Ferromagnetic substance:
The path of the magnetization as a function of the applied field is
non-linear and is called hysteresis loop.
Magnetization that can be orders of magnitude larger than for
the paramagnetic solids.

Magnetization
Ferromagnetic substance (continue):
Upon removal of the magnetizing field, magnetization does not
return to zero but retains a record of the applied field.
Like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism is observed only at
temperatures below the Curie temperature.

Natural Remnant Magnetization (NRM)

In situ magnetization of rocks is the vector sum of two
components:

J = Ji + Jr .
Jr

Ji

remnant

induced

J
NRM is the remnant magnetization present in a rock sample prior
to laboratory treatment. It depends on the geomagnetic field and
geological processes during rock formation and during the history
of the rock.

Natural Remnant Magnetization (NRM)

Question: for a rock to acquire remnant magnetization, what type
of material must be present?

Jr = J

primary
r

+J

secondary
r

Three forms of primary NRM:

Thermo-remnant
magnetization: acquired during cooling from

high temperature.
Chemical-remnant magnetization: formed by growth of
ferromagnetic grains below the Curie temperature.

Natural Remnant Magnetization (NRM)

Detrital-remnant magnetization: acquired during accumulation of
sedimentary rocks containing detrital ferromagnetic minerals.

Natural Remnant Magnetization (NRM)

Secondary NRM:
Results from chemical changes affecting ferromagnetic minerals,
exposure to nearby lighting strikes, or long-term exposure to the
geomagnetic field subsequent to rock formation.

NRM: Practical issues

Sampling:
The first step of paleomagnetic survey is to collect oriented cores.
The information of each sample includes coordinates, azimuth and
dip (or hade).

NRM: Practical issues

Measurement:
NRM is measured with a special devise called magnetometer.

NRM: Practical issues

Progressive demagnetization

NRM: Practical issues

Projection of demagnetization

Vector directions are described in terms of inclination and

declination. This information is then projected onto a
stereographic plot.
Rotation of the sample coordinates to geographic direction.
Bedding-tilt correction.

NRM: Geological applications

Fold and conglomerate tests:

(with black arrows indicating directions of NRM)

Question: was NRM acquired prior to or after the conglomerate

formation?
Solution: random distribution of NRM indicate that NRM was
acquired prior to the conglomerate.

NRM: Geological applications

Fold and conglomerate tests:

(with black arrows indicating directions of NRM)

Question: was NRM acquired prior to or after folding?

Solution: improved grouping of NRM upon restoring the limbs of

the fold indicate that NRM was acquired prior to folding.

NRM: Geological applications

Fold test:

Before unfolding:

After unfolding:

NRM: Geological applications

Pre-folding versus syn-folding induced magnetization:

NRM: Geological applications

Pre-folding versus syn-folding induced magnetization:

Crosses: 0% unfolding
Circles: 50% unfolding
Squares: 100% unfolding

NRM: Geological applications

Inference of flow direction in dikes:
During magma flow in
dikes, elongated particles
imbricate against the
chilled margins. In such
case, the NRM directions
along the two margins are
distinct and fall on either
side of the dike plane.
Question 1: What is the mechanism by which the NRM is being
acquired here?
Question 2: What would you see if the flow direction was at an
opposite direction?

NRM: Geological applications

Inference of flow direction in dikes:
That the western margin
data plot on the right side
and the eastern margin
data plot on the left side
suggests that the flow was
upward.

Field survey
Strength of magnetic field
above an anomaly in the North
Pole.

Field survey
Strength of magnetic field
above an anomaly in the
equator.

Field survey
Strength of magnetic field
above an anomaly in the
latitude 45 degrees.

Field survey
Strength of magnetic field
above an anomaly in the midlatitude.

Field survey
In conclusion, it is more
difficult to visually interpret
magnetic anomalies than
gravity anomalies. These
visual problems, however,
present no problem for the
computer modeling
algorithms used to model
magnetic anomalies.

Temporal variations
Magnetic readings taken at the same location at different times
will NOT yield the same results.

Temporal variations are classified according to the rate of

occurrence and source:
Polarity reversal: 103 - 106 years
Secular variations: years
Diurnal variations: hours-days
Magnetic storms: minutes-hours

Temporal variations: Polarity reversal

Reversals occur at irregular intervals over time. The current sense
of polarity is called normal and the opposite is called reversed.

Temporal variations: Polarity reversal

The Cretaceous Superchron

Temporal variations: Secular variations

Slow changes in magnetic north over time. Shown below are the
declination and inclination of the magnetic field around Britain
from the years 1500 through 1900.

Temporal variations: Diurnal variations

These variations occur over the course of a day, and are related
to changes in the Earth's external magnetic field. Shown below is
the typical variations in the magnetic data recorded at a single
location (Boulder, Colorado) over a time period of two days.

Can be on the order of 20 to 30 nT per day and should be

corrected for when conducting exploration magnetic surveys.

Temporal variations: Magnetic storms

Occasionally, magnetic activity in the ionosphere will abruptly
increase. These storms correlates with enhanced sunspot activity.
The magnetic field observed during such times is highly irregular
and unpredictable.

In this example, the magnetic field has varied by almost 100 NT in

a time period shorter than 10 minutes!! Exploration magnetic
surveys should not be conducted during magnetic storms.

Temporal variations: Practical implications

Unlike the gravitational field, the magnetic field can vary quite
erratically with time.
Most investigators conduct magnetic surveys using two
magnetometers. One is used to monitor temporal variations of the
magnetic field continuously at a chosen base station, and the
other is used to collect observations related to the survey proper.
Unlike gravimeters, magnetometers show no appreciable
instrument drift.
By recording the times at which each magnetic station readings
are made and subtracting the magnetic field strength at the base
station recorded at that same time, temporal variations in the
magnetic field can be eliminated. The resulting field then
represents relative values of the variation in total field strength
with respect to the magnetic base station.

Temporal variations from CHAMP satellite

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Strength of the magnetic field at the Earth's surface in 2006, as given by the
main field model POMME-3.0

Temporal variations from CHAMP satellite

Continuous measurements of the magnetic field by satellites can
be used to estimate the present changes in the magnetic field.
The 1st time derivative gives the
secular variation. It shows that the
field strength is decreasing in most
parts of the World. The strongest
decrease is seen the Caribbean.
But there are also areas of
increasing field strength, such as
in the Indian Ocean.
The 2nd time derivative is called
the secular acceleration. Note the
westward movement of the Indian
Ocean high and the Caribbean low.

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Temporal variations from CHAMP satellite

The general tendency of magnetic

field features to move westward is
called the westward drift.
Another way to see the field
westward is to split the 2000-2008
data interval into two windows and
into compute 2nd time derivative to
each window separately.

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Temporal variations from CHAMP satellite

About 95% of the field strength observed at the Earth's surface is due to the
geodynamo process in the fluid outer core. Thus, after making some simplifying
assumptions (e.g., that the flow is horizontal), Maus (2008) has invert the
observed secular variation for flow at the surface of the outer core.

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Temporal variations from CHAMP satellite

Secular acceleration
of the main field in
2006

Inferred flow at the

surface of the outer
core.

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Earth magnetic field and the geodynamo model

Projection of the surface magnetic

field down to the core surface reveals a
complex structure.
The vertical field is strongest not at
the geomagnetic pole, but in two areas
some 200 away from it.

Only northern Hemisphere is

shown (Gubbins, 2008)

Earth magnetic field and the geodynamo model

Simulation by Glatzmaier and

Roberts suggests this pattern
to be the effect of fluid flow
within the inner core being
intense around a cylinder that
aligned with the geographic
axis.

Yellow shows the area where the fluid

flow is the greatest, the blue mesh
marks the core-mantle boundary, and
the red mesh mash the inner core
boundary.

Earth magnetic field and the geodynamo model

Magnetic field generated
by a dynamo model in
which heat flow from the
core surface matches that
estimated from the
temperature in the solid
mantle immediately above
it.
The four locations of
strongest fields lie very
close to the corresponding
locations in the Earth
magnetic field.