GAS DYNAMICS

Compressible Flow with Area

Change
M.S Process & Mechanical
Engineering
3rd Semester

Steady 1-D Isentropic Flow With Area

SO FAR WE HAVE DEVELOPED
Change

1. General equations governing steady 1-D flow

2. These equations have driving potential terms for,
1. Area change
2. Friction
3. Heat Transfer
4. Body forces

Revise
development of
equations, given in
Table 3.1 and 3.2

We Need To Quantify The Effects Of These Driving Potentials

1. Generally all these potentials can be present
2. In most of the practical cases one of them is more important and rest can
be neglected
3. First we consider the effects of area change for adiabatic frictionless flows

Steady, 1-D Isentropic Flow With Area

Change,
Governing equation for Steady 1-D Flow
Governing Eqs.
With Area Change;
Assumptions:
1. No body forces, gdz = 0
2. No friction, Ff = 0
3. No heat Transfer, adiabatic flow, Q = 0
4. No drag force, D = 0
5. No work done, W = 0

Continuity Equation

Momentum Equation

Energy Equation

m& AV constant

dp VdV 0

V2
h
constant H
2

Entropy Equation

s constant

Steady, 1-D Isentropic Flow Process With Area

Change
For An Isentropic Process
1. all the thermodynamic states lie on a
vertical line on h-s plot
2. Upper limit of enthalpy is point a, showing
zero KE and h=H
3. Lower limit of enthalpy is point b, showing
h=0 but maximum isentropic speed Vmax

4. All the stagnation properties H, P, T, o and

so are constant.
5. All this is due to only one driving potential
i.e area change
Comparison Of Adiabatic, Frictionless And Adiabatic, Frictional Flow
1. Differential equations are valid for both processes
2. Difference lies in the integration of these equations
3. For given set of initial conditions both processes have different final
conditions

Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic

Processes, contd.
Graphic representation

Expansion

Compression

Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic

Comparison
contd.
Processes
4. Integrate energy eq. for isentropic flow
h2'

V2'

h1

V1

dh VdV

5. Integrate energy equation for adiabatic flow with friction

h2

V2

h1

V1

dh VdV

6. Intuition tells that for frictional flow the maximum velocity thee fluid can
attain will be less than that for isentropic flow V2 V2
7. Consequently one can say that the maximum enthalpy for frictional flow
will always be greater than that for the isentropic flow h2 h2
Note: point 6 and 7 is valid for positive or negative area changes, i.e.
Expansion or Compression

Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic

Processes, contd.
Mathematical Representation of Specific Enthalpy Change
2

Isentropic Flow, expansion

V2 V1

he h1 h2
2

Adiabatic Flow with friction, expansion

V2 V1

he h1 h2
2

Isentropic Flow, compression

V1 V2

he h2 h1
2

Adiabatic Flow with friction, compression

V1 V2

he h2 h1
2

Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic

Processes, contd.
Difference in specific enthalpy change for isentropic and adiabatic
flow with friction = heat energy expanded to overcome friction
For Expansion

h1 h2 h1 h2

he Q f

For Compression

h2 h1 h2 h1

he Q f

Effect of Area Change on Flow

Properties

Continuity Eq.

Momentum Eq.

Speed of Sound

m& AV constant

dp VdV 0

Differentiate logarithmically

Can be written as

p
a
s

d dA dV

A V

dp
2 dV
V
0

For isentropic flow

a 2 d dp

Combine the three equations and use the definition of Mach Number to get

dA
dV
2
M 1
A
V

dA
p dp
2
1 M
2
A

These equations suggest the manner in which area should change to

accomplish the required expansion or compression of a compressible fluid

Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties,

contd.
(a) Nozzle flow/action

The area change which shows

the effect of increase in
velocity with decrease in
pressure
(b) Diffuser flow/action

Table

Relationship between dA & dM for Steady

1-D Isentropic flow
M
dA
< 1.0
> 1.0
dA < 0

dM > 0

dM < 0

dA > 0

dM < 0

dM > 0

The area change which shows

the effect of decrease in
velocity with increase in
pressure

dA
dV
2
M 1
A
V

Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties,

Choking
WHAT WOULD HAPPEN
M

dA
ONCE THE
< 1.0
> 1.0
SONIC CONDITIONS ARE REACHED & AREA
dACHANGE
<0
dMCONTINUES
>0
dM < 0

For subsonic/supersonic flow

Once M=1 at a particular section of converging
section then
What would be M2, whereas dA < 0
There can be two possibilities/assumptions
1. M2 < M1
2. M2 > M1
Table suggests, that for dA < 0 dM > 0
For: M2 < M1
Contradiction with basic assumption, M2 < M1

Effect of Area Change, Choking,

contd. -2

Table suggests, that for dA < 0 dM > 0

For: M2 > M1
Contradiction with basic assumption, M2 > M1
dA
dA < 0

M
< 1.0

> 1.0

dM > 0

dM < 0

The Table Is In Fact A Representation Of The Conservation Laws

Under Isentropic Conditions
THESE CONSERVATIONS ARE NEVER VOILATED BY NATURE

Effect of Area Change, Choking,M

dA
-3 THE FOLLOWING CONFIGURATION
WHATcontd.
ABOUT HAVING
< 1.0 AND;
> 1.0
ONCE THE SONIC CONDITIONS ARE
dA > REACHED
0
dM < 0

dM > 0

Now consider the possibilities

M2 < M 1

OR

M2 > M 1

Table suggests, that for

dA > 0, dM < 0 : dA > 0, dM > 0
Table suggests, that for
Both the possibilities the conservation laws are not violated
Once M=1 is achieved at the throat, then how the downstream M will change
in the diverging section. We need to answer this query

Effect of Area Change, Choking,

Ans: The
downstream
contd.
-3 flow can be either subsonic or supersonic

Which one of this is possible

The subsonic or supersonic flow in the downstream section depends
on the downstream physical boundary conditions
at the exit section of the flow passage
IMPORTANT INFERENCES
For supersonic flow starting from
rest

For subsonic flow starting from

supersonic flow

One needs a C-D geometry

Throat will give the max mass flow
rate corresponding to throat velocity.
'
Vt ' a* m& m&max
m&* at A*

This CD geometry is named as

De Laval Nozzle

Effect of Downstream Physical Boundary

Conditions

Properties and Property Ratios

Property Ratios for
isentropic flow with
area change
Limiting Values of the
Property Ratios for the
Steady One-D Isentropic
Flow of a Perfect Gas

Properties and Property Ratios

For CHOKED flow where M=1
The property ratios for isentropic flow leads to t *, p* and *
Critical Temperature

Critical Pressure

2
t =
T
1

2
p * =

Critical Density
2
* =

1
1

Critical / Max Mass flow rate

&=
m
*

A *P

RT

1
2

A *P

ao

Critical Velocity

2
=

V * =a* Rt *

1
2

2 1

2 RT

1
2

2
ao

1
2

Effect of Area Change On Flow

The Governing Equations
For Isentropic Flow With Area Change
Properties
Eq. of Continuity

d dA dV

A V

Eq. of Motion

dp
dV dp V
dp
dV
V 2

dV
M 2
0

V
p
p
p
V

Eq. of Energy

V2
c pt
const c pT
2

Eq. of State

p Rt

Eq. of Speed of Sound

Eq. of Mach Number
Eq. of Stream Thrust

dt VdV dt
dV

-1 M 2
=0
t
c pt
t
V

dp d dt

0
p

t
da 1 dt

0
a 2 t

a Rt
2

V
a

dM dV da

0
M
V
a

F pA 1 M

dF
dp dA 2 M 2 dM

0
F
p
A 1 M 2 M

Effect of Area Change On Flow Properties,

1. 7 ODE relating, dp/p. dt/t. d/contd.
, dV/V, da/a, dM/M, dF/F to dA/A
2. All the 7 equations are linear in derivative form
3. Hence if one of the 8 properties is specified all the other can be found
4. Choose dA/A as independent variable and write in matrix form
5. Thus you get all the dependent variables as function of dA/Ae
0
1

1
0

M
1
0 1 M 2
1 1
0
12 0
0
0
0
1
0

2 M 2
0
1 M 2

0
0
0

0
0

dp p
dt t

dV V
da a

dM M
dF F

Solve to get the solution

dA A

dA A

Effect of Area Change On Flow Properties,

contd. 1 2
The coeff. of dA/A are called influence coefficients
1
M
dM

2
1 M 2

dp M 2 dA

p 1 M 2 A
d
M 2 dA

1 M 2 A
2
dt 1 M dA

t
1 M 2 A

dV
1 dA

V 1 M 2 A
2
da 1 M dA

a 21 M 2 A

dF
F

1
dA
1 M 2 A

dA
A

Each coefficients of dA/A is the partial derivative of a

Particular flow property w.r.t the driving potential dA/A
dA < 0
dA > 0
Property Ratio M < 1 M > 1 M < 1 M > 1
dM/M
+
+
dp/p
+
+
dt/t
+
+
d/
+
+
dV/V
+
+
da/a
+
+
dF/ F
+
+

The Case of Converging Nozzle

For given areas of nozzle and back
pressure po, we are interested in
1.The Mach No at throat as function of
pressure ratio
2.The pressure ratio that will cause the
nozzle to choke
Vt '
H constant h
2

Since flow is assumed to be isentropic,

write the energy equation for section 1 and 2

'
t

Vt 2 H ht'
'

1
2

2 RT
'
Vt
1

' 1

p
V
a 2

1 t
M t' t' o'
at at 1

P

'

12

'
t

If the gas
is perfect

12

pt'
2
a o
1
1 P

M t'

12

2
P
'
1
1 pt

12

The Case of Converging Nozzle,

IMPORTANT INFERENCES
contd. -2
1. If po is decreased for a constant P thenthere will be increasing flow in
nozzle and pt = po untill pt=po=p*
2. Once pt = p* then any further reduction in po will have no effect on pt and pt
will remain p*.
3. At this condition the fluid will be flowing at its maximum speed, V t =a*
4. The critical pressure ratio p*/P does not get reduced to po/P but rather
remains constant at p*/P, no matter how much po is reduced to.
5. Even if P is increased it will raise the p* for the same constant p*/P ratio
6. Thus the throat Mach number will remain same equal to unity
7. Mass flow rate m* will also remain critical for the corresponding P & T
8. This applies to the converging nozzle and
2to throat section of CD nozzle

12

9. So for max isentropic

speed
' 1throat

p
2 RT
Vt ' a*
1 t
P
1

p =

2
a o
1

12

and

, complete nozzling & flow choked

The Case of Converging Nozzle,

Isentropic
Mass Flow -3
Rate:
contd.
Apply continuity equation
m& At V At 2 H h
' '
t t

'
t

'
t

1
2

For perfect gas density can be found as

p

t' =o

'
t

P p
P
RT

'
t

Hence isentropic throat mass flow rate is

m&'

A t P 2

RT 1

p pt'
1
P P

'
t

m&'

At P
RT

The Case of Converging Nozzle,

Effect of decreasing p with constant P
contd. -4
o

There can be 3 possibilities

1. po = pb = p*
2. po > p*
3. po < p*
Cases of po p*
Jet issues from nozzle in parallel cylindrical stream
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Case of po < p*
Gas expands outside the nozzle
This expansion is explosive
Gas particles are accelerated radially
Cause low pressure in jet core
Making particles move back
Thus giving a periodic thin & thick sections

The Case of Converging Nozzle, contd. -5

Effect of increasing P with constant po
Once P in slightly more than po flow starts as subsonic
Further increase in P increases flow rate till pt = p*
Now further increase in P has no effect on the pressure ratio p o/P
1
P po

With = 1.4 , the critical pressure ratio remains constant at 0.52828

Choked nozzle gas
speed for at throat

2 RT
'
Vt
1

p
1

P
'
t

12

1
2

2 RT

a
o

1
1

a*

Increase in P for constant T, increases the local density causing increase in

mass flow rate. Increase in mass flow rate is linear with increase in P
However for critical conditions at throat volumetric flow rate is independent
of P, as Q* = m* / *. If T is also constant then Q also remains constant

1
2

The Case of Converging Nozzle, contd. -6

MULTIDIMENSIONAL FLOW EFFECTS
1. Assumption of 1-D flow is not valid for large angled nozzles, giving non uniform flow
2. Large angles cause the inward radial momentum to form vena contracta outside the
nozzle, Vena contract is also called aerodynamic throat
3. Vena contracta shape is affected by the surrounding atmospheric conditions. Even for
pressure ratios larger than the critical ratio

Expt. Sonic lines for 25 c-nozzle

o

Line of constant M for 40o c-nozzle and r=4

The Case of Converging Nozzle, contd. -7

Flow non-uniformities and vena contacta causes reduced flow rates
giving rise to discharge coefficients

m&actual
CD
m&1 D isentropic

Experimental discharge coefficients

for conical converging nozzles

The Case of C-D Nozzle

Only CD nozzles can generate supersonic flows
The converging part makes the flow critical
The diverging part then makes the flow supersonic
We need to specify property ratios at exit of nozzle as function of pressure ratio

The Case of C-D Nozzle, contd. -2

We earlier calculated the isentropic discharge speed of gas as
2 RT
'
V
1
2 RT
V
1
'
e

pe'
1

12

'

12

pe'
2
a o
1
1 P

12

pe'
1
V max

Similarly the exit Mach number

1

pe'
V
ao 2
M e
1
ae ae 1

P

'
e

12

2 P
'
1 pe

Similarly the exit Mass flow rate

m& m& At a At eVe
*

* *

At P
m&
RT
'

OR

*A t P
m&*
RT

12

1
2

The Case of C-D Nozzle, contd. -3

Plot of various ratios of exit to stagnation conditions as function of pressure ratios

The Case of C-D Nozzle, contd. -4

Area Ratio for Complete Expansion in terms of pressure ratio
1

A P
2

RT
m&'
A
A * 1

1
m&* A t P
At A

RT

P

1

1

p

P

1
2

Area Ratio for Complete Expansion in terms of exit Mach number

A
A
1 2
*

At A
M 1

1 2
M
2

1
2 1

Similarly Velocity ratio of exit to the throat or critical conditions

' 1
1

V
p

M* *
1
a 1

P

'

12

The Case of C-D Nozzle, contd. -4

1. When mass flow rate is less than
choked mass flow rate then throat area
is greater than critical throat area and
throat M <1
2. In order to find the exit area put
A = Ae and use eq.
By putting p/ =pe and M = Me
3. To get max isentropic discharge speed
put pe = po. This is done by designing
the nozzle in such a way that Ae/A*
gives pe = po
Such a nozzle has optimum area ratio
OR
The area ratio gives complete expansion

Effect of Back Pressure on C-D Nozzle

Effect of Back Pressure on C-D Nozzle

Under-expansion in CD Nozzles
If the nozzle expands the gas passing through it such that p e = po then
the velocities in the diverging section are supersonic through out
provided the nozzle is passing maximum mass flow rate through its
throat.
If for maximum flow rate condition and given fixed geometry, p e > po, then
the gas expands outside the nozzle to po as in the case of only
converging nozzle.
Under such conditions the K.E of gas coming out of the nozzle < the K.E
of gas expanding isentropically and completely
Thrust produced by such nozzles is less than corresponding to complete
expansion
Such CD nozzles are called under-expanding nozzles

Over-expansion in CD Nozzles

Similarly if the back pressure is greater than the exit pressure (p o > pe), the gas is overexpanded and the CD nozzle is called over-expanding nozzles
Thrust produced by such nozzles is also less than that corresponding to complete
isentropic expansion
In order to meet with po ( which is not transmitted backward into the nozzle), the gas has
to be compressed through series of shock waves, as discussed earlier

1. There are regions of subsonic flow in the

Boundary Layers
2. Information of po gets transmitted through this
region
3. If po is slightly greater than pe then oblique
shock waves are formed at the edge of nozzle
4. As po is raised further then these oblique shock
waves get stronger and cause the jet to
separate. Reason being the adverse pressure
gradient that exits between the edge of nozzle
and inside the nozzle
5. Separation of jet needs regulation for rocket
motors, as they operate over an extremely large
range of altitude

6.
7.

Over-expansion in CD Nozzles, contd.

Plot of experimental data of over-expanding nozzles
-2
Only one isentropic complete expansion M and if p is increased from that
0

corresponding to M then sharp increase in pressures / shock waves are observed.

8. Shock waves become stronger & even move inside nozzle if po is raise sufficiently raised
9. The separation pressure ps 0.4 po and depends on BL character & divergence angle
10. For a given , ps depends on pressure ratio r

Jet Propulsion Engines

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.

Based on the Newton third Law.

Examples, all types of sea ships or aircrafts etc.
How to get required reaction force. By giving sufficient momentum to a mass of fluid
Reaction to time rate of increase in momentum of fluid produces a force called thrust
What are the available means for propelling a body in a fluid medium differ only in the
manner increase in momentum is imparted to the working fluid
The working fluid to receive the increase in momentum , water, steam, air, gases
produced by chemical reactions, charged particles or their combinations
Selection of the working fluid depends on the nature of propulsion problem
All the propulsion systems are classified by the way the working fluid is handled
1. Propeller propulsion: where the momentum is imparted to the working fluid when it
passes through the propeller. The working fluid moves around the body to be
propelled
2. Jet Propulsion: where the momentum is imparted to the working fluid by ejecting it as
a high speed jet from with in the body to be propelled
The jet propulsion devices are further classified into two classes
1. The Air Breathing Engines
2. The Rocket Engines

Jet Propulsion Engines, contd. -2

THE AIR BREATHING ENGINES
1. They involve the normal combustion process.
2. Fuel is mixed with air drawn into the engine from the atmosphere
3. The air fuel mixture is burnt and the temperature of the gases produced after
combustion is increased to the desired value.
4. These hot gases are then ejected out of the engine through nozzles to get the
required propulsion and hence thrust
5. Turbojet, turbofan, ramjet and SCRAM jet are typical examples of this class
Choose control volume given by dashed line
1. DA = Additive Drag
2. F =Net force acting on Engine surface
3. Pressure forces will be acting on the inlet
and outlet areas of nozzles
4. Momentum will be coming in and going out
from inlet and outlet of nozzle

Jet Propulsion Engines, contd. -3

F Da po Ao pe Ae m&eVe m&aVo
Pressure force acting on
propulsion device inlet/outlet areas

Net force acting on

propulsion device

Momentum leaving / entering

the propulsion device

Additive drag force if

stream lines are curved

&eVe pe po Ae
Net force acting on propulsion device = Fnozzle m

&e m&a m&f

Mass of fluid at outlet = m

F
Thrust per unit mass flow rate air = I a
m&a

Mass of fuel is generally 2-5% of air

Another performance parameter, thrust specific fuel consumption = TSFC

TSFC should be as low as possible for economical reasons

m&f
F

Jet Propulsion Engines, contd. -3

The following assumptions are very much valid
1. Mass of fuel is negligible compared to the mass of air used
2. DA is generally only few percent of the total thrust
3. For a well designed nozzle pe = po hence the pressure thrust should be zero
Hence the net thrust produced can be approximated as

F m&a Ve Vo

Rocket Engines
They differ from the Air Breathing Engines in the following ways
1. They do not draw air from the atmosphere
2. Total mass ejected out of the engine to produce thrust is carried with in the engine

Basic Features of A rocker Engine

A similar analysis on a control volume gives

F po Ae pe Ae m&eVe
F m&eVe pe po Ae
Net surface force
acting on the rocket

Jet Thrust

Pressure Thrust
F
Similarly Specific thrust = I sp
m&

&e
Similarly for Max Thrust Nozzle Force = F mV

Performance of Propulsive Nozzles

Net thrust developed by a propulsive nozzle depends on
1.
Mass flow rate through the nozzle
2.
The exit area
3.
The exit static pressure
4.
The ambient pressure
5.
The velocity of fluid at exit

Essential features of propulsive nozzles

The converging
propulsive nozzles

Performance of Propulsive Nozzles,

contd. -2
The converging
propulsive nozzles

Two Commonly Used Performance Criteria for Propulsive Nozzles

Specific Impulse

Thrust Coefficient

pe po Ae

F
I sp
Ve
m&
m&
& e pe po Ae
mV
F
CF

PAt PAt P P At

One can use the isentropic flow relations and represent CF in terms of m* and Ve

Performance of Propulsive Nozzles,

Doing thecontd.
necessary algebra
-3leads to

PAt
2
pe
CF
ao
1
ao PAt 1
P

2 2
CF

2
CF 1

2
1

pe po Ae

P P At

pe
1
P

pe po Ae

P P At

2
1

1 2

M e 2 1 1 2 M e

pe Ae
F

*
F
P At

pe Ae

P At

Performance of Propulsive Nozzles,

contd. -4

Plot of CF as function of e (area ratio) for = 1.2

IMPORTANT INFERENCES
1. For a given po/P there is a unique value of
area ratio that gives max thrust
2. Maximum thrust occurs when po = 0, for
given e
3. Clearly max thrust occurs when such an area
ratio is chooses which gives pe = po
4. Around maximum thrust CF curve is quite flat
5. Thus slight adjustment in area ratios are
possible without losing CF.
6. Thus one can design for reduced area and
thus less weight and size
7. One can use the correction coefficients to
account for the multidimensional effects

Thrust Reduction by Flow Divergence in

Nozzles
Axial
thrust is first calculated on a differential exit area and then integrating over the
total area
Integration and algebraic manipulation gives

1 cos
2

V
e e e pe po Fs
2

Design Criteria for Propulsive Nozzles for

Max Thrust
Thrust developed by a propulsive nozzle is given as

F m&eVe pe po Ae

We need to find the nozzle exit area which should yield max thrust. Differentiating we get

dF m&edVe Ae dpe pe dAe po dAe

Ae dpe eVe dVe pe po dAe

dF
pe po
dAe

Zero: Bernoullis equation

Zero: For maximum thrust

i.e pe = p0
Hence Area must be chosen so that

pe po

P
P

Assignment
Chapter 1: 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23
Chapter 3: 1, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19
Chapter 4: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19,20