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Slide 2
LN
S 3 3 S 1
3 V LL I *
P jQ
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.
Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor
Slide 3
Leading
Power
Factor
Lagging
Power
Factor
P jQ
P - jQ
P + jQ
Slide 4
S 3VI
V 3ZI
SB
B
3VB
2
V
B
Z
B SB
ZB (Base Impedance)
(kVB ) 2
ZB
MVA B
IB (Base Current)
I actual
I pu
IB
Vactual
Vpu
VB
Zactual
Z pu
ZB
Sactual
Spu
SB
VB (Base Voltage)
SB (Base Power)
ETAP selects for LF:
100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
entire system.
The kV rating of reference point is
used along with the transformer turn
ratios are applied to determine the
base voltage for different parts of the
system.
Slide 5
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied
starting from the utility kV rating.
kVB1
N1
kV
kVB2
N2
1
B
kVB2
X pu
X
R
Z pu
X
R
R pu
x pu
X
R
Slide 6
X pu
0.065(12.14)
1 (12.14) 2
0.06478
R pu
0.06478
0.005336
12.14
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where n stands for new and o stands for old.
o
n
o VB
Z pu Z pu n
VB
SnB
13.8 100
o (5.33 10 3 j0.06478)
(0.1115 j1.3538)
13.5 5
SB
kVutility 13.5
VB
4.0695
3.31
N1
N 2
VB2
(4.0695) 2
ZB
0.165608
MVA
100
Slide 7
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
(0.6038 j6.0382)
ZB
0.1656
% Z 100 Z pu 60.38 j603.8
The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base
Slide 8
Slide 9
2.
Newton-Raphson Method
Fast-Decoupled Method
Slide 10
kWRated
HP 0.7457
kVARated
PF Eff
PF Eff
kVARated
FLA3
3 kV
kVARated
FLA1
kV
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %
loading conditions
kW
kVA
kVA
( 3 kV)
kVA
I1 1000
kV
I 3 1000
Slide 11
TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD
PHASOR
PHASE
ANGLE
I
V
= 0
P>0
Q=0
= +90
P=0
Q>0
= - 90
P=0
Q<0
0<<+90
P>0
Q>0
I
I
V
L
Slide 12
TYPE OF LOADS:
TYPE OF LOAD
PHASOR
PHASE
ANGLE
I
R
C
V
-90<<0
P>0
Q<0
P=0
Q=0
Tuned to
Resonance
IL = Ic
I
V
C
Ic IL
PL = Pc
Energy travels
Back & forth
Between C&L
-90<=<=+
90
Slide 13
Slide 14
Slide 15
Slide 16
Slide 17
Slide 18
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Slide 19
Feedback Voltage
AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
Slide 20
Slide 21
Isochronous Mode
Slide 22
Droop Mode
Slide 23
Slide 24
Slide 25
Slide 26
Slide 27
Slide 28
Machine Rating
(Power Factor
Point)
Slide 29
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Slide 30
Power Flow
V1 V1 1
V 2 V2 2
S V*I P jQ
V *V
1 2 *SIN( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V2
V2
j
*COS( 1 2 )
X
X
V1*V2
*SIN( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V2
V2
Q
*COS( 1 2 )
X
X
P
Slide 31
X
j5
I 10 j2.68
I
Slide 32
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
( V E)
sin
X
( V E)
cos
X
Power Flow
V
X
2
2
Slide 33
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value
Percent of Nominal Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated 4.03
V%
kVCalculated
100 96.85%
kVNo min al
Slide 34
Slide 35
Slide 36
Exercise Time
Open LF-Example-A1
Follow instructions in LF-Example-A1.PDF
Slide 37
Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
1996-2010 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 38
Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance
Transmission Line
Resistance
Slide 39
Slide 40
Slide 41
Cable
Reactor
Line
Transformer
UPS/Panel
Generator
Slide 42
Monitored parameters %
Condition reported
OverLoad
OverLoad
Fuses
Rated Current
OverLoad
Contactors
OverLoad
OverLoad
Slide 43
Slide 44
Exercise Time
Open LF-Example-B1
Follow instructions in LF-Example-B1.PDF
Slide 45
Slide 46
Slide 47
Voltage Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment
1996-2010 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 48
Under-Voltage Example
Create Under Voltage
Condition
Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
Run LF
Voltage is improved
Run LF
Slide 49
Advanced LF Topics
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Load Flow Convergence
Load Flow vs. Optimal Power Flow
1996-2010 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 50
Mvar Control
Vars from Utility
Close Switch
Open Switch
Run LF
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
Slide 51
Advanced LF Topics
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Load Flow Convergence
Load Flow vs. Optimal Power Flow
1996-2010 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 52
Slide 53
Exercise Time
Open LF-Example-A2
Follow instructions in LF-Example-A2.PDF
Slide 54
Advanced LF Topics
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Load Flow Convergence
Load Flow vs. Optimal Power Flow
1996-2010 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 55
Slide 56
Slide 57
Control Variables
Slide 58
Objective Functions
Minimize Real Power Losses
- To minimize real power losses in the system
Slide 59
Objective Functions
Minimize Shunt var Devices
- To minimize var generation from available shunt
var control devices
Slide 60
Objective Functions
Minimize Load Shedding
- To minimize load to be shed from the available
bus load shed schedule
Slide 61
Objective Functions
Maximize Voltage Security Index
Voltage Security Index
AllBuses
Vi Vi ,avg
dVi
2n
Where,
Vi ,avg
Vi ,max Vi ,min
2
dVi
Vi ,max Vi ,min
2
Slide 62
Objective Functions
Maximize Line Flow Security Index
Line Flow Security Index
AllBranches
Si
Si
2n
Slide 63
Other Constraints
Bus Voltage Constraints
Branch Flow Constraints
Interface Flow Constraints
Slide 64
Exercise Time
Open LF-Example-A3
Follow instructions in LF-Example-A3.PDF
Slide 65
Slide 66
Panel Systems
Slide 67
Panel Boards
They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing
power and lighting panels in electrical
systems
Slide 68
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Slide 69
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Slide 70
Assumptions
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
1996-2010 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 71
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A
B
C
B
C
IB = IBC
IBC
Load
IC = -IBC
LoadB
SBC = VBC.IBC
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin
SB = VB.IB
PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin ( - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin ( + 30)
Slide 72
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest
voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
Slide 73
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type
is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Slide 74
Schedule Page
Circuit Numbers
with
Standard Layout
Circuit Numbers
with
Column Layout
1996-2010 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 75
Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads
demand factor status
Slide 76
Rating Tab
Slide 77
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are
calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Slide 78
Slide 79
Feeder Tab
Slide 80
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Slide 81
Summary Page
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Slide 82
Output Report
Slide 83
Slide 84