OD CHPTER 1

Definitions and Foundations of OD

1.1 Definitions of OD
1.2 Values, assumptions and beliefs of OD
1.3 History of OD
1.4 Foundations of OD

Definition by Michael E. McGill

Organization Development is a conscious planned
process of developing an organizations capabilities so
that it can attain and sustain an optimum level of
performance as measured by efficiency, effectiveness,
and health.
Operationally OD is a normative process of addressing
the questions Where are we?, Where do we want to
be? And How do we get from where we are to where
we want to be? Members of the organization using a
variety of techniques, often in collaboration with a
behavioral science consultant undertake this process.

Definition by French and Bell

OD is a long term effort led and supported by top
management, to improve an organizations visioning,
empowerment, learning, and problem solving
process through an ongoing, collaborative
management of organization culture- with special
emphasis on the culture of intact work teams and
other team configurations- utilizing the consultantfacilitator role and the theory and technology of
applied behavioral science, including action
research.

1. Long term effort: OD takes time not a quick-fix- it is a continuous improvement

(change).
2. Led and supported by: By top management- to ensure commitment.
3. Visioning process: Members create a picture of the desired future in terms of
products, services and expectations from each other.
4. Empowerment processes: Leadership behaviors that utilize fully the talents of
members.
5. Learning processes: Interacting, listening and self examining processes that
facilitate individual, team and organizational learning (as against defensive
routines).
6. Problem solving processes: Developing new and creative organizational solutions.
7. Ongoing collaborative management of organizations culture: That is, managing
values, attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, expectations, activities, interactions, norms,
sentiments etc. through widespread participation.
8. Intact work teams and other team configurations: Teams are the basic building
blocks of organizations.
a) Intact teams- boss-subordinates and self directed teams.
b) Other team configurations- task teams, project teams. Tom Peters- The work of
tomorrow will be done by multifunctional projectization and horizontal systems.
9. Utilizing the consultant-facilitator role: In the early phases at least, help of external
(third party) OD consultant is required. Also, more and more internal members
should be trained in facilitation skills.
10.Action research: That is, participative mode of diagnosis and action taking in which
the leader, members and OD practitioners work together.

Values, assumptions and beliefs in OD

Belief is a proposition about how the world works that the individual
accepts as true.
Values are also beliefs. They are about what is desirable or good
and what is undesirable or bad.
Assumptions are beliefs that are regarded as so valuable and
obviously correct that they are taken for granted and rarely
examined and questioned.
OD values and assumptions have been developed from research and
theory by behavioral scientists and from the experiences and
observations of practicing managers.
OD values tend to be humanistic, optimistic and democratic.

OD Values Robert Tannenbaum (1969)

OD Values

As against

People are basically good.

People are bad.

Consider people as human beings.

Negative evaluation of people.

Viewing people in process.

Viewing people as fixed.

Accept individual differences and

utilize them.

Resisting and fearing individual

differences.

Utilize individual as whole person.

Utilize individual in terms his/her job

description.

Facilitate appropriate expression and

use of feelings.

Block expression of feelings.

Authentic behavior.

Maskmanship and game playing.

Use of status for organizationally

relevant processes.

Use of status for maintaining power and

prestige.

Trust people.

Distrust people.

10

Make appropriate confrontation with

relevant data.

Avoid facing others.

11

Willingness to take risk.

Avoid taking risks.

12

Process work as essential for

effective task accomplishment.

Process work considered as

unproductive.

13

Emphasis on collaboration.

Emphasis on competition.

Foundations of OD- An Overview

F1

F2

Models and
Theories of
Planned Change

System Theory

Participation and
Empowerment

Teams and
Teamwork

Parallel
Learning
Structures

Normative Reeducative Strategy

of Changing

Applied
Behavioral
Science

Action
Research

3-step model of
change- Kurt
Lewin (1940)

General systems
theory- Ludwig
von Bertalanffy
(1950)

4-step modelJames Belasco

(1990)

Grid OD- Robert

Blake and Jane
Mouton (1975)

Bushe and
Shani (1980)

Three types of
strategies for
changing- Chin and
Benne (1976)

Group dynamics

Kurt Lewin
(1947)

Model of
empowermentKouzes and Posner
(1990)

GroupwareJohansen, Sibbet
and others (1991)

Expanded 7 stage
model- Bruce,
Lippit, Watson
and Wesley (1958)
Total system
change modelRalf Kilmann
(1989)
Bruke-Letwin
Model of
transaction vs.
transaction

Sociotechnical
systems theory
(STS)- Trist &
Emery (1950)
Open systems
planning (OSP)Krone, Jayaram,
McWhinney
(1960)

F3

Four things of
excellent
companies- Tom
Peters and Nancy
Austin (1985)

F4

Eight
characteristics of
successful teamsLarseon and
LaFasto (1989)
Disciplined teamKatzenback and
Smith (1993)

F5

F6

F7

Motivation
Organizational
climate
MBO,
Behavior
modeling
Counseling

F8

Foundation 1: Models and Theories of Planned Change

Kurt Lewin (1940)- Three step model expanded as seven stage model for the
purpose of OD by Lippit, Watson and Westley (1958).

Total System Change Model Ralf Kilmann (1989)

Stream Analysis Model- Jerry Porras (1987)

Stream analysis is a system of graphically displaying the problems of an organization, examining

the interconnections and graphically tracking the corrective actions taken to solve the problems.

Porras categorized the important features of the organizational work setting in four classes of
variables (streams).

The Four Streams:

1.

Organizing arrangements include goals, strategies, structure, administrative policies and

procedures, administrative systems, reward systems and ownership.
Social factors include culture, management style, interaction processes, informal patterns and
networks and individual attitudes.
Technology includes tools, equipment, machinery, information technology, job design, work flow
design, technical expertise, technical procedures, and technical systems.
Physical setting includes space configuration, physical ambiance, interior design, and
architectural design.

2.
3.
4.

Stream Analysis Model- Jerry Porras (1987) . Cont.

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

The Process
Diagnosis of organizations problems through brainstorming sessions,
interviews, questionnaires etc.
Task force (representing all organizational units) reviews, discuss,
understand and categorize each problem into on of the streams.
Four columns are drawn on paper- the column headings are labeled
with the four streams. Interconnections between the problems are
noted. Problems with many interconnections are considered as core
problems.
Action plans are prepared to correct the core problems. Action plans
and their results are tracked on stream charts.

Bruke-Letwin Model of Individual and Organizational Performance

(1994)

Interventions directed toward leadership, mission and

strategy and organization culture produce
transformational (fundamental) change.
Interventions directed toward management practices,
structure, and systems produce transactional change
(change in organizational climate).
OD practitioner should study the situation and then
decide what kind of change is required (therefore, what
kind of OD intervention is required).

Foundation 2: Systems Theory

General Systems Theory- Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1950)

A system is an arrangement of interrelated parts.

Characteristics of Open System

1.
2.
3.
4.

All open systems are input-throughput-output mechanisms.

Every system has a boundary that separates it from its environment.
Open systems have purposes and goals that must align with persons and needs of the environment.
the law of entropy states that all systems run down and disintegrate unless they reverse the entropic process by
importing more energy than they use. Both positive and negative feedback are necessary for preventing the
system from running down.
Negative feedback measures whether or not output is on course with the purposes and goals (deviationcorrecting feedback).
Positive feedback measures whether or not the purposes and goals are aligned with environmental needs
(deviation-amplifying feedback)
Systems achieve a steady state or dynamic homeostasis against disruptive forces- internal or external. The basic
principle is preservation of the character of the system.
Differentiation: Systems tend to get more elaborated, differentiated, specialized, and complex over time
(differentiation). With increased differentiation, there is increased need for integration and coordination.
Equifinality: There are multiple ways to arrive at a particular outcome or state- in systems, there are multiple
paths to goals. There can be subsystems within larger systems. Systems can be arranged into hierarchy of
systems moving from less important to more important.

5.
6.
7.

Systems Theory can help explain many

organizational phenomena:
Why organizations resist change?
Why does a plan fail, fail again and then
succeed? (feedback?)
Why do organizations become increasingly
bureaucratic and complex (equifinality ignored?)

Sociotechnical Systems Theory (STS)- Eric Trist, Fred Emery (1950)

1.
2.
3.
4.

All organizations are comprised of two interdependent

systems- a social system and a technical system.
Organizations must be structured to optimize both to
achieve high productivity and high employee
satisfaction.
STS prescribes principles of work redesign and
organizational restructuring.
Formation of autonomous work groups.
Training members in multiple skills.
Appropriate use of performance feedback.
Identifying core tasks.