Attachment: An

emotional bond
between two people.
Its a 2 way process
that endures over time.
2 explanations It leads to certain
of attachment: behaviours, such as
learning &
clinging and serves the
evolutionary function of protecting
theory.
an infant.
Operant conditioning: process by
which an individuals behaviour is
shaped by reinforcement or
punishment. Positive(give something)
& negative(take something)
reinforcement strengthens behaviour.
Punishment weakens behaviour. Type
of learning determined by
consequences. Association made
between action and reward.

Classical conditioning:
Attachments are seen
through classical
conditioning, where
babies learn to associate
care-givers with food.
Through conditioning a
care-giver satisfies a
babies psychological
needs.
The mouse- operant conditioning:
Mouse placed in skinners box and was
fasted for 24 hours so it was hungry.
Never been conditioned. Researcher
imagines line dividing the box. When the
mouse goes in the half nearest to the
lever sugar is released. The mouse
presses the lever and receives a reward,
reward reinforces the action so the
mouse repeats it.

secondary reinforcer. Attachment occurs

because the child seeks the person who can
supply the reward.
A problem with the learning theory is that
research suggests that infants dont always
attach through the provision of food and may
prefer comfort. For example, Harlow (1959)
found that despite the cloth monkey providing
no food he young monkey would still cling to
them especially when frightened. But
according to the learning theory the young
monkey should have become attached to the

wire mother who offered food. This suggests

that food may not be the main reinforcer like
the learning theory has stated rather it may be
the attention and responsiveness from a
caregiver that create bonds.
Furthermore, another limitation of learning
theory is that it is based on studies with nonhuman animals. For example The Harlow
(1959) study in which they used baby monkeys
to study attachment. In this experiment
animals were used and not humans so these
results may not apply to humans.

Revision cards: Attachment

Konrad Lorenz: Imprinting

Used grey lag goose in experiment. Had 2
conditions : no1 he was the first moving
object they saw after they hatched. No2 the
mother goose was the first moving object
they saw. They found that geese who
followed him when adults they performed
mating displays to him and ignore other
geese unlike no2 geese. Found that they
have a critical period to form attachments.

Classical
conditioning
is an
association
made between
the neutral
stimulus and
the innate,
unconditione
d response.

Neutral stimulus:
Anything in the
environment that
doesnt cause you to
respond naturally.

According to the learning theory

the baby has to learn to form an
attachment with the mother.
(process of classical). The baby
first feels comforted by the food but
each time hes fed the mothers
there. He soon associates the
mother with the pleasure of food.
The baby feels happier. The
beginning of attachment.

Outline and evaluate the learning theory of

food. After a while the mother will be able
attachment (12 marks)
to stimulate a feeling of pleasure from the
The assumption of the learning theory is that
baby even without the presence of food.
attachments are formed through association
This association occurs because the child
and reinforcement. Also its the idea that
seeks the person who can supply the
behaviour is learnt rather than inborn. There
reward.
are two explanations for all attachment
During the process of operant conditioning
classical and operant.
the mother will reward the baby by feeding
In the process of classical conditioning, the
him/her. The baby will then begin to
baby associates the mother (neural stimulus)
associate the mother with the reward and
with the pleasure of being fed (innate
will repeat any action that brings them
unconditioned response).The baby then
close to her. At first the mother is the
associates the caregiver with the pleasure of
primary reinforcer and the mother is the
A final weakness of the learning theory of
explanation for why attachments form but
attachment is that research does not support the association and reinforcement might be a
idea that infants learn to attach to the one
part of it.
person that feeds them the mother. For example, Evolutionary theory: The
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) study in which
tendency to form
over a year they observed 60 babies from mainly attachments is innate.
working class families. Their observations
Evolution is traits that
showed that the infants were more attached to
increase the chances of
the person that responded and interacted with
them the most and not the person that fed them. survival. An infant that
The studies lead to the conclusion that
sticks to the mother is
cupboard love was unlikely to be the best
more likely to survive.

Bowbleys attachment theory:

Attachment is a behavioural system
that has evolved because of its
survival/reproductive value. Children
have an innate drive to attach to
parents as it has long term benefits.
We are born with it.

Criteria for
evolutionary theory:
Adaptiveattachments are
adaptive. Meaning
they give our species
an adaptive
advantage making us
more likely to survive
since theyre attached
to a caregiver theyre

kept safe,
given food and
kept warm.

Social releasers: babies have social

releasers, unlock the innate tendency of
adults to care for them i.e physical:
baby face and behavioural: crying,
cooing.
Critical period: have to form
attachment in this period. Between
birth and 2.5 yrs. Bowlby said if not the
child could be damaged for lifesocially, emotionally, intellectually,
physically.
Ainsworth and bell (1970) strange..
The aim was to produce a method for
assessing quality of attachment.
They placed infants in different
situations. 100 middle class
American infants and mothers. It
was controlled.

Strange conclusions:
1.Showed individual differences
between infants.
2.Showed most American kids
securely attached.
3.Distinct association
between mothers
behaviour and infants
attachment type.
An individualistic culture is one
which emphasises personal
independence and achievement at the
expense of group goals resulting in a
strong sense of competition.
A collectivist culture is one which
emphasises family and work goals
above individual needs and desires.
High degree of interdependence.

Monotropy: Bowbly believed infants

form one very special attachment with
their mother. This intense attachment is
called monotony, substitute mother.
.

Strange steps:
1.Parent and infant play
2. Parent sits while infant plays- use of secure
base
3.Stranger enters talks to parent- stranger anxiety
4.Parent leaves, stranger offers comfortseparation anxiety
5.Parent returns offers comfort if needed infant
alone- reunion behaviour
6.Parent leaves infant alone- separation anxiety
7.Stranger enters offers comfort- stranger anxiety
8. Parent returns offers comfort-reunion behaviour

Internal working model: Through the

monotropic attachment an internal is
formed. A schema for relationship is made
and future relationships are based on this
The strange situations Ainsworth + Bell
(1970):
Aimed to produce method for assessing
quality of attachment. It places the infant in
different situations involving comfort
seeking & exploration behaviour indicators
of quality of attachment.

Four findings from strange:

1.Separation anxiety -unease infant
shows when parent leaves
2.Secure -base behaviour-infants
willingness to explore
3.Stranger anxiety -infants
response to presence of stranger
4. Reunion behaviour - the way the
caregiver is greeted on return.

Strange evaluation:
Evaluate Bowlbys theory (2marks):
Study seen as unethical since theyre separating A study which supports this theory is
child from mother could cause
Bowlbys study of 44 juvenile thieves(1947).
psychological/emotional stress. Goes against
Aim was to determine whether theres a
guidelines.
Disadvantage is that parents may feel bad they maycorrelation between maternal deprivation
in infancy & adolescent delinquency. 44
be told child is type a or c.
Lacks ecological validity taken place in a lab + juvenile thieves in a child guidance clinic
wouldnt leave kid with stranger the experiment where compared with 44 adolescent who
were thought to be emotionally disturbed,
isnt best representation.
Reliable done in lab can be repeated.
didnt steal. Found more affectionless in
Lacks generalisability (Americans)
44

Evaluate Bowlbys theory (2marks):

The Schaferson and Emerson, 1964
contradicts bowlbys evidence. Bowbly
claimed that a single caregiver was most
important child figure been criticised.
Suggested that children have multiple
attachment with caregivers other than the
mother i.e. father. Its believed it depends
on quality of interaction more than
quantity.

Evaluate Bowlbys theory (6marks):

Spitz (1945) studied institutionalised
children, followed the social development
of babies removed from their mothers
early in life. Some were placed with foster
families some in institutions. Nursing
home babies had no family-like
environment nurse 8hr shift. Babies raised
in nursing home suffered 1/3 died. 21 still
in institution after 40yrs. Most mentally,
physically and socially retarded.

3 types of attachment behaviour:

Type B- secure attachment 65%
Type C- resistant insecure 12%
Type A- avoidant insecure 23%
In 1986 Main & Solomon suggested
that there was a fourth attachmentdisorganised/disorientated.
Characterised by child avoiding mother
on return.

Strange findings:
Type b- securely attached: cried mother left
positive when return, moderate avoidance,
friendly if mothers there, mother sensitive.
Type a- avoidant insecure: didnt orientate,
not concerned, little interest, avoided
stranger + mother, mother ignored.
Type c- resistant insecure: intense distress,
rejected mom later, ambivalent to stranger
& mother vice versa.
juvenile. Affectionless
psychopaths show
little concern for
others, unable to form
relationships.
Concluded that the
reason for the antisocial behaviour +
emotional problems 1st
group was due to
maternal deprivation.

Short-term effects of deprivation:

Protest- immediate reaction to
separation involves crying/ screaming,
outward direct expression of childs
fear, anger etc.
Despair- protest replaced by calmer
behaviour, anger inwards, child
comforts itself thumb-sucking.
Detachment- child responds to
people but warily, rejection, anger.

The maternal deprivation theory

(Bowlby 1951):
He suggested that attachment is
essential for healthy social &
emotional development so disruption
is negative. MDH is based on studies
Lack of maternal care a common
factor for negative outcomes i.e poor
IQ.

Outline what psychologists have discovered about

cultural variation (6 marks)
Cultural variation is the different ways that
different groups of people vary in terms of their
social practises and the effects these have on
development and behaviour. One example of
research is the Ainsworth (1907) study in Uganda.
Used naturalistic observations. In Uganda they
found that infants used their mothers as a secure
base for explanation. Also the mothers of the
securely attached infants showed greater
sensitivity towards their infants than those
insecurely attached.

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg

(1988) conducted a meta-analysis of
the findings from 32 studies of
attachment behaviour using
Ainsworths strange situation.
Examined over 2000 babies in 8
different countries. Creates large
sample of data. Attachment types
between and within cultures were
studied.

Evaluating cultural variation:

The sensitivity hypothesis- Bowbly & Ainsworth
promoted the view that secure attachment was related to
responsiveness and sensitivity. Rothbaum argues that this
reflects western ideas. Whereas in Japan sensitivity is
about promoting dependence rather than independence.
This suggests sensitivity has opposite affects on
countries.
The continuity hypothesis- Bowbly & Ainsworth
proposed that infants who are more securely attached go
on to develop into more socially and emotionally
competent children/adults. In terms of being independent/
able to explore. Rothbaum said in Japan theyre more
group orientated rather than self orientated. This is

Evaluation of disruption of attachment: The institutions

The Robertsons work led to radical provided an unstimulating
changes in hospital practices. For
example nurse shifts designed so they environment and it
may have been the
had regular contact with children,
lack of stimulation
enabling them to form alternative
rather than the
bonds, during stay. Visiting hours
absence of maternal
changed allow regular contact with
care that leads to
attachment figures and bring familiar retarded
toys.
development.

Spitz & Wolf (1946)

Studied children raised in poor quality
south American orphanages. Staff rarely
talked, picked up children. They
displayed analytic depression from loss
of loved object.
Skeels & Dye (1939)
Found similar children scored poorly in
intelligence test. Bowlby delinquent kids
suggest LT negative effects.
Also another piece of research is the Grossman
and Grossman (1991) study. In this study they
found that German infants tend to be classified
insecure. This may be due to child rearing. And
in the German culture some interpersonal
distance is involved explaining why some infants
do not engage in proximity seeking behaviour.
Additionally in the Takahaski (1990) study in
China they found many infants were insecureresistant. During the strange situation technique
90% of infants in the study were stopped

because they were particularly distressed when

they were left alone. These results could be
attributed to culture variation in childcare
since the infants rarely experience separation.
Overall these studies showed that the
differences in patterns of attachment can be
related to differences in cultural attitudes

Summarise table/findings:
Secure attachments were the most common
form in all of the cultures surveyed. The
highest proportion was found in Great
Britain. Avoidant was the next most
common and was mostly found in Germany.
Also the found differences between cultures.
For instance one of their Japanese studies
showed no avoidant attachment in babies
whereas the second found around 20%.
The secure base hypothesis- In the west secure
attachments are seen as providing an infant with a
secure base to explore promoting independence.
Rothbaum said attachment relationships in Japan are
dependent orientated associated with insecure
ambivalent attachment. Amae part of Japanese culture
(depend on each other)

Reasons why:
Britain- women have maternity leave
for nearly 2 years.
US they only have 6 weeks
maternity leave
Britain + US are individualistic
encourage independence hence
exploration behaviour.
Japan most insecure since theyre
always with their mums.
Rothbaums generalisation in Japan
may be unfair because within the
country there are different subcultures,
each of which may have different
childcare practises. A study of
attachment in Tokoyo (urban setting)
found similar distributions of
attachment types to the western studies
whereas a rural sample found over
representation of insecure resistance.

Additional studies:
Tronick et al (1992) they studied the Efe tribe
from Zaire (in Africa) the infants had been
breastfed by different women but usually slept
with their mothers. Despite this they still showed
one primary attachment.
Fox (1977) Studied infants raised in
Kibbbutzim theyd spent most of their time being
cared for in a communial childrens home by a
nurse. They used the strange situation tech and
found the infants were equally attached to both
caregivers except in terms of reunion behaviour
they were more attached to mothers

Conclusion: cultural variation

This demonstrates that it is an over
simplification to assume that all children
are brought up in exactly the same way
within a country/ culture. Also it shows
that despite cultural variation in infant
arrangement the strongest attachments are
still formed with the infants mother.
However there are differences in patterns
of attachment that can be related to
differences in cultural attitudes.

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg

justify cultural variation some
studies involve middle class infants
whereas others involved workingclass infants. Wrong to think
behaviour within one country as
representing a homogenous. Caution
when assuming that individual
sample is representative of a
particular culture.

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg

justified cultural similarities might
be explained by affects of mass media,
which spread ideas about parenting so
that children all over the world are
exposed to similar influences.
A problem when conducting crosscultural research is preconceived ideas
from their own country which they use
to compare to others.

Culture variations the ways that different groups of

people vary in terms of their social practises, and the
effects these practises have on development and
behaviour.
Culture refers to rules, customs, morals and ways
of interaction within members of society.
Meta-analysis is a summary piece of research
which looks at a range of similar studies.
Ethnocentrism use belief or idea to judge a culture.
Culture-bound behaviours applicable to specific
cultures.
Imposed-etic using techniques relevant to one
culture to study another.

Day care refers to a of temporary

care that is not provided by parents and
usually takes place outside the home.
Social development refers to the
tendency to seek and enjoy the
company of others and to make
personal relationship with them.
2 areas of social development:
childrens aggression levels,
development of peer relationships.

Describe how psychologists have investigated

the impact of day care on aggression (6 marks)
Psychologists have done various studies on the
impact of day care on aggression. They found
that day care can affect aggression both
positively and negatively. For example the
Hagekull and Bohlin (1995). From this study
they found that Swedish children from
disadvantaged families who experienced highquality group day care had lower aggression
levels than other children. This suggests that
quality care can lower levels of aggression
despite a childs family background.

Also another study done was NICHD (1991-2003)

in which they studied 1000 children. Parents were
interviewed at regular intervals. They found that
by age 5, children who spent more time in day
care were rated as more aggressive. This suggests
that day care highers levels of aggression.
Describe how psychologists have investigated the
impact of day care on peer relations (6 marks)
Psychologists have done various studies on the
impact of day care on peer relations. They found
that day care can have both a positive and
negative impact on peer relations. From the Field
(1991) study they found that the amount of time

Spent in full time day care was positively correlated

to the number of friends children had once they
went to school. This suggests that day care can help
develop childrens social skills. From the Belsky and
Rovine (1988) study they discovered that infants
that received 20 or more hours day care per week
before one year old were found to be more likely
insecurely attached by using the strange situation to
assess this. This suggests that they will be less
successful in forming peer relations because theyre
not securely attached.

Evaluation of research relating to Day care:

Concerning the NICHD study there are issues
about correlation vs cause these findings are
not casual. The data cannot show that day
care caused aggression. Instead the data
shows that day care and aggressiveness are
linked in some way. This suggest that these
results are meaningless as it doesnt indentify
the process it could be that aggressiveness
only increases when a child is inadequately
supervised.

The study into day care does not talk into

consideration individual differences. For
example children who have a shy nature
may find it frightening and harder to cope
with than others (Pennebaker et al 1981)
from the egeland and Hiester (1995) study
they found that insecurely attached children
did best in day care whereas securely
attached children became aggressive. This
suggests that these results cannot be
generalised because children are all
different and react in different ways to day.

Research on day care can not take into account

the quality of care. People believe that day care
can be harmful to children because physical
separation from a primary attachment figure
appears to leave a child with no emotional care
is provided then there may be no negative
affects. For example the NICHD study (1997)
found that low-quality day care was associated
with poor social development. This suggests that
quality of care is a mediating factor so its wrong
to assume that day care can have a negative
impact on a child.
Suggest what responses Clare might make to
Rick to convince him that going to work would
not have negative effects on their new baby.
Refer to psychological research (4 marks)
Clare can inform rick that good quality day care
can be beneficial. For example the NICHD
study (1994) found that low quality day care
was associated with poor social development.
Whereas if suitable substitutes emotional care is
provided there may be no ill effects. This
suggests that well trained practitioners can
provide a stimulating environment and day care

When studying the impacts of day care the age

of the child and number of hours spent there
has to be considered. From the gregg et al
92005) study they found kids who were placed
in day care before they were 18 months old
were more likely to experience negative effects.
Whereas in the Clarke-stewart et al (1994)
study they found no difference between
children who spent more than 30 hours a week
from the age of 3 months with children who
spent less than 10 hours a week. This suggests
that
Also Clare can tell Rick how day care mothers
tend to be better since they may experience lower
levels of stress, frustration and depression which
isnt uncommon in working mothers. And day care
mothers can interact and respond to their children
in a more positive and healthy manner.

Suggest two arguments that rick could present

to Clare to convince her that she ought to stay
at home. Refer to psychological research (4
marks) Rick could inform Clare that day care
doesnt provide a child with appropriate love
and attention. From the bryant et al (1980)
study they found that children in d childminders
setting were actually disturbed and this may be
because childminders dont feel that they have to
form emotional bonds with the children. This
suggests that home care offers a more loving
and stimulating environment.

Also he can tell her day care can effect a

child's social skills negatively. From the
Belsky and Rovine (1988) study they
discovered that infants that received 20 or
more hours day care per week before one
year old were found to be more likely
insecurely attached by using the strange
situation to assess this. This suggests that
they will be less successful in forming peer
relations because theyre not securely
attached.

Describe implications of research into

attachment for childcare practices. (6 marks)
Research into attachment has many
implications for childcare practices. Ainsworth
carried out the strange situation study and
found that some children are insecurely attached
and reject their mother when she returns. This
has lots of implications because it suggests that
mothers should not leave their children,
particularly if they are insecurely attached
because they risk breaking the attachment bond.
Securely attached infants are less likely to reject

their mother when she returns, therefore

those mothers are better able to go out to
work. Schhaffer and Emerson carried out a
study which showed that young children
didnt just have attachments with their
mothers, but also with their fathers and
grandparents. These are called secondary
attachments. This has implications for
childcare practices because it means that
when a mother goes out to work, she can
leave her infant with the father or
grandparent, and the child will be okay.

Explain how the findings of this study could

be used to improve childcare practices. (3
marks) Ainsworths study findings could be
used to identify whether children are
securely attached or insecurely attached they
will react in certain situations. For example,
if children are insecurely attached they will
have more difficulties if they are left in day
care. It would also predict how the child will
be when they are picked up so special
attention can be made of the child by the
mother to make up for this.

Koluchova (1972, 1991) identical Czech

twins: These twins spent 7 years of their
lives locked up by a stepmother. When they
were first discovered they couldnt talk.
Later when discovered they were cared for
by two loving sisters by age 14 they had
near normal intellectual and social
functioning. By 20 they were above average
intelligence and had excellent relationships
with their foster family. Shows that they
were at a young enough age to recover.
Physical under-development children in
institutional care are usually physically small
one suggestion is lack of emotionally care rather
than peer nourishment is the cause of such
dwarfism. Gardner (1972) found that emotional
disturbance may affect production of hormones
explaining link between emotional privation and
physical under-development. In study the girl
was emotionally deprived and physically stunted
but returned to normal after getting attention
/care. Under-development can be attributed to
other factors.

4 applications of psychological research

into attachment and day care:
Understanding of attachment processes can
be applied to improving the quality of day
care. Some day care programmes are based
on attachment theory thus children are
ensured emotional relationships.
In the past they encouraged mothers to nurse
their baby for a significant amount of time
(adoption) to ensure they form an attachment.
Today babies are adopted within

The effects of privation and

institutionalisation:
Dis-inhibited attachment
Poor parenting
Physical under-development

the first week of birth. Research shows that

adoptive mothers and children are just as
securely attached as non adoptive families
(singer et al, 1985)
By researching day care they found that to
avoid negative consequences there has to be a
good care setting from (1991) Field. Sensitive
care needs to be offered.
There has to be a good staff-to-child ratio if
the ratios are low as 1:3 day care staff may be
overwhelmed and unable to offer consistent
care.
Disinhibited attachment Hodges and Tizard
followed 65 British kids from early life to
adolescence. Many were put in an institution when
they hadnt yet formed attachments and caretakers
werent allowed to form attachments. An early study
found 70% couldnt later on care deeply for anyone.
Those who went back to family less likely to form
attachments with mothers. Those adopted were
closely attached to parents. Suggests that early
privation had a negative effect on ability to form
relationships.
Rather than the lack of attachment the findings can
be attributed to the lack of car. Also the sample was
small.

Curtiss (1977) & Rymer (1993)

Genie: Genie was locked in a room by
her father until she was 13 because
he thought she was retarded. She
couldnt stand or speak. She never
fully recovered socially. Her lack of
recovery may be due to extreme early
emotional privation or just late age
she was discovered.
Poor parenting - Harlow (1960) showed
monkeys raised with surrogate mother went on
to become poor parents. Supported by Quiten et
al (1984) compared so women whod been
reared in institutions with group of so reared at
home. Found that ex- institutional women had
difficulty acting as parents.
Poor parenting is not the only reason for
privation it could be mental disorder or
disinhibited attachment etc. Also the study
couldve caused mothers to feel upset.