Semicondu

ctor
Physics

Introduction
Semiconductors are materials whose electronic
properties are intermediate between those of
Metals and Insulators.
They have conductivities in the range of 10
10 +4S/m.

-4

to

The interesting feature about semiconductors is

that they are bipolar and current is transported
by two charge carriers of opposite sign.
These intermediate properties are determined
by
1.Crystal Structure bonding Characteristics.
2.Electronic Energy bands.

 Silicon
and
Germanium
are
elemental
semiconductors and they have four valence
electrons which are distributed among the
outermost S and p orbital's.
These outer most S and p orbital's of
Semiconductors involve in Sp3 hybridanisation.
These Sp3 orbital's form four covalent bonds of
equal angular separation leading to a tetrahedral
arrangement
of
atoms
in
space
results
tetrahedron shape, resulting crystal structure is
known as Diamond cubic crystal structure

Semiconductors are mainly two

types
1. Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors
2. Extrinsic (Impure)
Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor
A Semiconductor which does not have any
kind of impurities, behaves as an Insulator
at 0k and behaves as a Conductor at
higher temperature is known as Intrinsic
Semiconductor or Pure Semiconductors.
Germanium
and
Silicon
(4th
group
elements) are the best examples of
intrinsic semiconductors and they possess
diamond cubic crystalline structure.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
Valence Cell
Covalent bonds
Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Conduction band

Ec

E
Electron
energy

Ec
Ef

KE of
Electron
= E - Ec

Fermi energy level

Ev
Valence band

Distance

KE of Hole
=
Ev - E

Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

When a suitable form of Energy is

supplied
to
a
Semiconductor
then
electrons take transition from Valence
band to Conduction band.
Hence a free electron in Conduction band
and simultaneously free hole in Valence
band is formed. This phenomenon is
known as Electron - Hole pair generation.
In Intrinsic Semiconductor the Number of
Conduction electrons will be equal to the

Calculation of Density of
Electrons

Let dn be the Number of Electrons available

between energy interval E and E+ dE in the
Conduction band

dn Z ( E ) dE F ( E )
top of the band

z ( E ) F ( E )dE................(1)

Ec

Where Z(E) dE is the Density of states in the

energy interval E and E + dE and F(E) is the
Probability of Electron occupancy.

We know that the density of states i.e., the

number of energy states per unit volume within
the energy interval E and E + dE is given by
3
1
4
Z ( E )dE 3 (2m) 2 E 2 dE
h

3
1
4
Z ( E )dE 3 (2me ) 2 E 2 dE
h

Since the E starts at the bottom of the Conduct

3
1
4
Z ( E )dE 3 (2me ) 2 ( E Ec ) 2 dE
h

Probability of an Electron occupying an

energy state E is given by
1
F (E)
E Ef
1 exp(
)
kT
For all possible temperatures E E F kT
F (E)
exp(

1
E Ef

kT
E EF
EF E
F ( E ) exp (
) exp(
)
kT
kT

Substitute Z(E) and F(E) values in Equation (

top of the band

z ( E ) F ( E )dE

Ec

4
E E
n 3 (2me ) 2 ( E Ec ) 2 exp( F
)dE
h
kT
Ec
3

1
4
2
n 3 (2me ) ( E Ec ) 2 exp( EF E )dE
h
kT
Ec

3
1
4
E
E
n 3 (2me ) 2 exp( F ) ( E Ec ) 2 exp(
)dE.....( 2)
h
kT Ec
kT

To solve equation 2, let

us put
E Ec x
E Ec x
dE dx

3
1
4
E
E
2
F
2
n 3 (2me ) exp(
) ( E Ec ) exp(
)dE
h
kT 0
kT

3
1
4
E
E x
n 3 (2me ) 2 exp( F ) ( x) 2 exp ( c
)dx
h
kT 0
kT

3
1
E

E
4
x
2
F
c
2
n 3 (2me ) exp(
) ( x ) exp (
)dx.....(3)
h
kT
kT
0

1
2

we know that ( x ) exp(

) dE ( kT )
kT
2
0
1
2

3
2

substitute in equation (3)

1
2

3
3
4
E

2
F
c
2
n 3 (2me ) exp(
) {( kT )
}
h
kT
2
2me kT 32
E F Ec
n2 (
) exp(
)
2
h
kT

The above equation represents

Number of electrons per unit volume of
the Material

Calculation of density of
holes

Let dp be the Number of holes or Vacancies

in the energy interval E and E + dE in the
valence band

dp Z ( E )dE {1 F ( E )}
Ev

z ( E ){1 F ( E )}dE................(1)

bottom of the band

Where Z(E) dE is the density of states in the

energy interval
E and E + dE and
1-F(E) is the probability of existence of a hole.

Density of holes in the Valence band is

Z ( E ) dE 3 ( 2mh ) E dE
h
3
2

1
2

Since Ev is the energy of the top of

the valence band

4
Z ( E )dE 3 (2m ) ( Ev E ) dE
h
3
2
h

1
2

Probability of an Electron occupying an

energy state E is given by
1
1 F (E) 1 {
}
E Ef
1 exp(
)
kT
E E f 1
1 F ( E ) 1 {1 exp(
)}
kT
neglect higher order terms in above exp ansion
for higher T values
1 F ( E ) exp(

E Ef
kT

Substitute Z(E) and 1 - F(E) values in Equa

Ev

z ( E ){1 F ( E )}dE

bottom of the band

Ev

4
E EF
(2m ) ( Ev E ) exp(
)dE
3
h
kT
3
2
h

1
2

Ev

4
EF
E
p 3 (2m ) exp(
) ( Ev E ) exp( )dE....(2)
h
kT
kT
3
2
h

1
2

Ev E x

To solve equation 2, let

us put

E Ev x
dE dx
Ev

4
EF
E
p 3 (2m ) exp(
) ( Ev E ) exp( )dE
h
kT
kT
3
2
h

1
2

4
EF
Ev x
p 3 (2m ) exp(
) ( x) exp(
)( dx)
h
kT
kT
3
2
h

1
2

Ev E F
4
x
p 3 (2m ) exp(
) ( x) exp( )dx
h
kT
kT
0
3
2
h

1
2

1
2

Ev E F
4

p 3 ( 2m ) exp(
)(kT )
h
kT
2
3
2
h

3
2

2m kT
Ev E F
p 2(
) exp(
)
h
kT

h
2

3
2

The above equation represents

Number of holes per unit volume of
the Material

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

In intrinsic Semiconductors n = p
Hence n = p = n i is called intrinsic Carrier
Concentration
ni2 np
ni np
2mekT 32
E F Ec
2mh kT 32
Ev E F
ni {2 (
) exp(
)}{2(
) exp(
)}
2
2
h
kT
h
kT
Ev E c
2kT

)
(
m
m
)
exp(
)
e
2
h
2kT
3
3
Eg
2kT 2 4
ni 2( 2 ) (me mh ) exp(
)
h
2kT
ni 2(

3
2

3
4
h

Fermi level in intrinsic Semiconductors

In intrinsic semiconductors n p
2me kT 32
E F Ec
2mh kT 32
Ev E F
2(
) exp(
) 2(
) exp(
)
2
2
h
kT
h
kT
2me kT 32
E F Ec
2mh kT 32
Ev E F
(
) exp(
)(
) exp(
)
2
2
h
kT
h
kT
mh 32
Ev Ec
2 EF
exp(
) ( ) exp(
)
kT
me
kT
taking logarithms on both sides

Conduction band

Ec

E
Electron
energy

Ec
mh* me*

Ef
Ev
Valence band

Temperature

2 EF 3
mh
E Ec
log( ) ( v
)
kT
2
me
kT
mh 32
E v Ec
3kT
EF
log( ) (
)
4
me
2
In intrinsic semiconductor we know that me mh
Ev Ec
EF (
)
2

Thus the Fermi energy level EF is

located in the middle of the forbidden
band.

Extrinsic Semiconductors
The Extrinsic Semiconductors are those
in which impurities of large quantity are
present. Usually, the impurities can be
either 3rd group elements or 5th group
elements.
Based on the impurities present in the
Extrinsic Semiconductors, they are
classified into two categories.
1. N-type semiconductors
2. P-type semiconductors

N - type
Semiconductors
When any pentavalent element such as
Phosphorous,
Arsenic or Antimony is added to the intrinsic
Semiconductor , four electrons are involved in
covalent bonding with four neighboring pure
Semiconductor atoms.
The fifth electron is weakly bound to the
parent atom. And even for lesser thermal
energy it is released Leaving the parent atom
positively ionized.

N-type
Semiconductor
Free electron
Si

Si

Si

Si

Impure atom
(Donor)

The Intrinsic Semiconductors doped with

pentavalent impurities are called N-type
Semiconductors.
The energy level of fifth electron is called
donor level.
The donor level is close to the bottom of
the conduction band most of the donor
level electrons are excited in to the
conduction band at room temperature
and become the Majority charge carriers.
Hence

in

N-type

Semiconductors

Conduction band
Ec
Ec
E
Donor levels
Electron
energy

Ev
Valence band

Distance

Ed
Eg

Carrier Concentration in N-type

Semiconductor
Consider Nd is the donor Concentration i.e.,
the number of donor atoms per unit volume
of the material and Ed is the donor energy
level.
At very low temperatures all donor levels are
filled with electrons.
With increase of temperature more and more
donor atoms get ionized and the density of
electrons in the conduction band increases.

Density of electrons in conduction

band is given
by
2m kT 3
E E
n 2(

e
2

) 2 exp(

kT

The density of Ionized

donors is given by
N d {1 F ( Ed )} N d exp(

Ed E F
)
kT

At very low temperatures, the Number of

electrons in the conduction band must be
equal to the Number of ionized donors.
2me kT 32
E F Ec
Ed E F
2(
) exp(
) N d exp(
)
2
h
kT
kT

Taking logarithm and rearranging we g

E F Ec
Ed E F
2me kT 32
(
)(
) log N d log 2(
)
2
kT
kT
h
Nd
2 E F ( Ed Ec ) kT log
3
2me kT 2
2(
)
2
h
( Ed Ec ) kT
Nd
EF

log
3
2
2
2me kT 2
2(
)
2
h
at.,0k
( E d Ec )
EF
2

At 0k Fermi level lies exactly at the middle o

and the bottom of the Conduction band

Density of electrons in the conducti

2me kT 32
E F Ec
n 2(
)
exp(
)
2
h
kT
( E Ec ) kT
Nd
{ d

log
} Ec
3

2
2
2me kT 2
2(
)
2
E F Ec
h
exp(
) exp{
}
kT
kT
exp(

exp(

exp(

E F Ec
( E Ec )
) exp{ d
log
kT
2kT
E F Ec
( E Ec )
) exp{ d
log
kT
2kT
E F Ec
)
kT

1
2

1
2

(Nd )
Ec

}
3 1

kT
2me kT 2 2
[ 2(
)
]
h2
1
2

(Nd )
}
3 1

2me kT 2 2
[ 2(
) ]
h2

(Nd )
( E d Ec )
exp
3 1
2kT
2me kT 2 2
[ 2(
)
]
h2

2me kT 2
E F Ec
n 2(
) exp(
)
2
h
kT
3

1
2

2me kT 32
(Nd )
( E d Ec )
n 2(
) {
exp
}
3 1
2

h
2kT
2me kT 2 2
[ 2(
) ]
2
h
1
3

m
kT
( E d Ec )
e
2
4
n 2( N d ) (
) exp
2
h
2kT

Thus we find that the density of electrons

in the conduction band is proportional to
the square root of the donor concentration
at moderately low temperatures.

Variation of Fermi level with

temperature
To start with ,with increase of temperature
Ef increases slightly.
As the temperature is increased more and
more donor atoms are ionized.
Further increase in temperature results in
generation of
Electron - hole pairs due to breading of
covalent bonds and the material tends to
behave in intrinsic manner.

P-type semiconductors
When a trivalent elements such as Al, Ga or Indium have
three electrons in their outer most orbits , added to the intrinsic
semiconductor all the three electrons of Indium are engaged
in covalent bonding with the three neighboring Si atoms.
Indium needs one more electron to complete its bond. this
electron maybe supplied by Silicon , there by creating a vacant
electron site or hole on the semiconductor atom.
Indium accepts one extra electron, the energy level of this
impurity atom is called acceptor level and this acceptor level
lies just above the valence band.
These type of trivalent impurities are called acceptor
impurities and the semiconductors doped the acceptor
impurities are called P-type semiconductors.

Co-Valent
bonds

Si

Hole
Si

In

Si
Impure atom
(acceptor)

Si

Conduction band

Ec

Ec
E
Eg

Electron
energy

Acceptor levels

Ev
Valence band

temperature

Ea

 Even at relatively low temperatures, these

acceptor atoms get ionized taking electrons
from valence band and thus giving rise to holes
in valence band for conduction.
Due to ionization of acceptor atoms only holes
and no electrons are created.
Thus holes are more in number than electrons
and hence holes are majority carriers and
electros are minority carriers in P-type
semiconductors.

 Equation of continuity:
As we have seen already, when a bar of n-type
germanium is illuminated on its one face, excess charge
carriers are generated at the exposed surface.
These charge carriers diffuse through out the material.
Hence the carrier concentration in the body of the
sample is a function of both time and distance.
Let us now derive the differential equation which governs
this fundamental relationship.
Let us consider the infinitesimal volume element of area
A and length dx as shown in figure.

 If tp is the mean lifetime of the holes, the holes lost

per sec per unit volume by recombination is p/tp .
The rate of loss of charge within the volume under
consideration

p
eAdx
tp
If g is the thermal rte of generation of hole-electron
pairs per unit volume, rate of increase of charge wthin
the volume under consideration

eAdxg

 If i is the current entering

the volume at x and i + di
the current leaving the
volume at x + dx, then
decrease of charge per
second from the volume
under consideration = di
Because of the above
stated three effects the
hole density changes with
time.
Increase in the number of
charges per second
within the volume
Increase = generation - loss
eAdx

dp
p
eAdxg eAdx dI
dt p
tp

eAdx

dp
dt p

Since the hole current is the sum of the diffusion current and the drift current

I AeD p

dp
Ape h E
dx

Where E is the electric field intensity within the volume. when no external
field is applied, under thermal equilibrium condition, the hole density
attains a constant value p0.

dp
under these conditions di 0 and
0
dt
p0
g
tp
this equation indicates that the rate of generation of
holes is equal to therate of loss due to recombination
under equilibrium conditions.

combain,.eq s ...3,4 & 5.

( p p0 )
dp
2 p
d ( pE )

Dp 2 h
dt
tp
x
dx
This is called equation of conservation of charge or the continuity equation.

if p is a function of both t and x,

partial derivatives should be used.
( p p0 )
p
2 p
( pE )

Dp

h
t
tp
x 2
x
if we are considering holes in the n - type material
pn
( p n p0 n )
2 pn
( pn E )

Dp

h
t
tp
x 2
x
if we are considering electrons in the p - type material
n p
t

( n p n0 p )
te

Dn

2n p
x 2

(n p E )
x

Direct band gap and indirect band gap

semiconductors:
We known that the energy spectrum of an electron
moving in the presence of periodic potential field
is divided into allowed and forbidden zones.
In crystals the inter atomic distances and the
internal potential energy distribution vary with
direction of the crystal. Hence the E-k relationship
and hence energy band formation depends on the
orientation of the electron wave vector to the
crystallographic axes.
In few crystals like gallium arsenide, the maximum
of the valence band occurs at the same value of k
as the minimum of the conduction band as shown
in below. this is called direct band gap
semiconductor.

Conduction
band

Conduction
band

Eg
Eg
k
Valence band

k
Valence
band

 In few semiconductors like silicon the maximum

of the valence band does not always occur at
the same k value as the minimum of the
conduction band as shown in figure. This we
call indirect band gap semiconductor.
In direct band gap semiconductors the direction
of motion of an electron during a transition
across the energy gap remains unchanged.
Hence the efficiency of transition of charge
carriers across the band gap is more in direct
band gap than in indirect band gap
semiconductors.

Hall effect
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a
current carrying conductor or semiconductor, voltage
is developed across the specimen in a direction
perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic
field. This phenomenon is called the Hall effect and
voltage so developed is called the Hall voltage.
Let us consider, a thin rectangular slab carrying current
(i) in the x-direction.
If we place it in a magnetic field B which is in the ydirection.
Potential difference Vpq will develop between the faces p
and q which are perpendicular to the z-direction.

+
VH
-

+ P

+
Y

+ + + + + + + +
+
+ ++ + + + + Q + + +
X

P type semiconductor

_ _

VH

_ P_

_
Y

_
_ _ _
_
X

_
_ _Q_ _ __

N type semiconductor

Magnetic deflecting force

F q (vd B )
Hall eclectic deflecting force

F qE H
When an equilibrium is reached, the magnetic deflecting force on
the charge carriers are balanced by the electric forces due to
electric Field.

q(vd B) qEH
E H ( vd B )
Where v d is drift velocity

The relation between current density and drift velocity is

J
vd
ne
Where n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume.

E H ( vd B )
J
EH ( B)
ne
1
E H ( JB)
ne
E H RH JB
1
EH
RH ( Hall ,.coefficient )

ne JB

If VH be the Hall voltage in equilibrium ,the Hall electric field.

VH
d
Where d is the width of the slab.
E
RH H
JB
1 VH
RH

JB d
If t is the thickness of the sample,
EH

Then its cross section is dt and current density

I
J
dt
VH RH JBd
I
VH RH ( ) B
t
V t
RH H
IB

 Since all the three quantities EH , J and B

are measurable, the Hall coefficient R H and
hence the carrier density can be found out.
Generally for N-type material since the Hall
field is developed in negative direction
compared to the field developed for a Ptype material, negative sign is used while
denoting hall coefficient RH.