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Prof. A.

Meher Prasad
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
email: prasadam@iitm.ac.in

Outline
Degrees of Freedom
Idealisation of SDOF System
Formulation of Equation of motion
Free vibration of undamped/damped systems
Forced vibration of systems
Steady state response to harmonic forces
Determination of natural frequency
Duhamels Integral and other methods of solution
Damping in structures

What is Dynamics ?

Basic difference between static and dynamic loading

Resistance due to internal


elastic forces of structure

P(t)

Accelerations producing inertia


forces (inertia forces form a
significant portion of load
equilibrated by the internal
elastic forces of the structure)

Static

Dynamic

Characteristics and sources of Typical Dynamic Loadings


Periodic Loading:
(a)

Unbalanced rotating
machine in building

(b)

Rotating propeller
at stem of ship

Non Periodic Loading:


(c)

Bomb blast
pressure on
building

(d)

Earthquake on
water tank

(a) Simple harmonic

(b) Complex

(c) Impulsive

(d) Long duration

Dynamic Degrees of Freedom

The number of independent displacement


components that must be considered to
represent the effects of all significant
inertia forces of a structure.

Examples

Dynamic Degrees of Freedom

1.

2.

Massless
spring

(a)

(b)

Spring
with
mass

(c)

Inextensible
Spring

Dynamic Degrees of Freedom


3.
Rigid bar with
distributed mass

Flexible and
massless

Finite
mass

Flexible and
massless

Point
mass

Massless
spring

(a)
4.

(b)

Flexible and
massless

Flexible beam
with distributed
mass

Point
mass

(a)

(c)
Flexible beam
with distributed
mass

y(x) = c11(x)+ c22(x)+

(b)

(c)

Dynamic Degrees of Freedom

Rigid deck

5.

Massless
columns

Idealisation of Structure as SDOF

Mathematical model - SDOF System


x

k
c

P(t)

Mass element ,m

- representing the mass and inertial


characteristic of the structure

Spring element ,k

- representing the elastic restoring force


and potential energy capacity of the
structure.

Dashpot, c

- representing the frictional characteristics


and energy losses of the structure

Excitation force, P(t) - represents the external force acting on


structure.

Newtons second law of motion


Force = P(t) = Rate of change of momentum of any mass

d
dx
m
=

dt
dt
When mass is not varying with time,

..

..

x, x
P(t)

P(t) = m x(t) = mass x acceleration


Inertia force

DAlemberts Principle: This Principle states that mass develops


an inertia force proportional to its acceleration and opposing it.

..

mx

The force P(t) includes ,

mg

1) Elastic constraints which opposes displacement


2) Viscous forces which resist velocities

..
mx

kx

3) External forces which are independently defined


4) Inertia forces which resist accelerations

& k x 0
mx&

Equations of motion:
fs

Spring force

- fs x

Viscous damping force - fd x

..

Inertia Force

- fI x

External Forces

- P(t)

fD
c
1

Examples

FBD for mass


1.

k
c

fs = kx

..

P(t)

P(t)

f I = m .x

fd = cx

& cx& kx P (t )
mx&

(1)

dx
d 2x
x&
;&
x&
dt
dt 2

2.

..
. mx

Kx + w

0+ cx

P(t)

st = w/k

x(t) = displacement measured from


position of static equilibrium
P(t)

& cx& kx P (t )
mx&

(2)

(3a)

P(t)

Rigid ,massless

P(t)

..

mx

a
x
L

a
b

x vertical displacement of the mass


measured from the position of
static equilibrium

d
L

b
&
&
mx
c
L

b
x&
L

a
x& k
L

d
x
P (t )
L

(3)

(3b)

Rigid
massless

a
x
L

d
L

b
x&
L

P(t)

P(t)

..

mx
m

Stiffness term

b
a
&
&
&
mx c x k
L
L

W

L

W=mg

d
x
P (t )
L

Note: The stiffness is larger in this case

(4)

..

(3c)

mx

x
P(t)

P(t)

b .
x&
L

c
L

a
x
L

Rigid
massless

Stiffness term

&
&
mx
c

a
x& k
L

W

L

d
x
P (t )
L

(5)

Note: The stiffness is decreased in this case. The stiffness term


goes to zero - Effective stiffness is zero unstable - Buckling load

(4a)

(distributed mass)

P(t)

L
P(t)
&
x&
2

m
(2/3)L

..

x
a
x
L

fs k

a
b

b .
x&
L

mx

fd c

&
x&
c


x& k

d
x
P (t )
L

(4b)
a
b
d

a
x
L

fs k

b
x&
L

fd c

c
P(t)

(2/3)L

L
&
x&
2
P(t)

..

mx
x

b
a
x& c x& k
m 3 L &
L
L
2

W 1

g
L 2

d
x
P (t )
L

(Negative sign for the bar


supported at bottom)

Special cases:
(4c)

(4d)

(4e)

g
&
x& x 0
L

3 g
&
x&

x0
2 L

&
J &
k 0

ke
ce

me

Pe(t)

me &
x& ce x& ke x Pe (t )
me - equivalent or effective mass
Ce - equivalent or effective damping coefficient
Ke - equivalent or effective stiffness
Pe - equivalent or effective force

(6)

m/2

Rigid ,massless

Internal
hinge P(t)

Rigid with uniform mass L/2 = m/2

N
x(t)

L/4

L/4

L/8

L/8

P(t)

x&
m
L &

&

x&

2
2
4

m &
x&

2 2

L/4

N
RL

o
x
k
2

x&

c
2

7
1
1
16 N
m&
x& c x& k 1
24
4
4
kL

3
P (t )
4

(5)

me

7
m
24

1
ce c
4

For N = - (1/16) k L

1
16 N
ke k 1
4
kL

ke = 0

This value of N corresponds to critical buckling load

3
Pe (t ) P(t )
4

(7)

Free Vibration
Undamped SDOF System
Damped SDOF systems

Free Vibration of Undamped System

&
x& p 2 x 0
k
p
m

(9)
(10)

General solution is,

x(t) = A cos pt + B sin pt (or)

(11)

x(t) = C sin (pt + )

(12)

where,

C A B
2

2
m
2
natural period
p
k
p 1
f
natural frequency
2 T

(13)
(14)
(15)

p - circular natural frequency of undamped system in Hz.

Amplitude of motion
v
x02 0
p

x
vo

x0
t

v0
x(t ) x0 cos pt sin pt
p
where,

tan

x0
v0 p

or

2
p

v0
2
x(t ) x0
p

sin ( pt ) (16)

X 0 =initial displacement
V0 =initial velocity

(17)

Natural frequencies of other SDF systems


p

square root of the coefficient of displacement


term divided by coefficient of acceleration

For Simple Pendulum,

(18)

p g L
2

k a
g
For system considered in (3b) , p


m L
L
For system considered in (5) , p

6 k
16 N
1

7 m
kL

For N=0 , p po
and for N

6 k
7m

1
kL , p 0
16

(19)

(20)

(21)

Condition of instability
N

1
kL N cr
16

p po 1

(22)

N
N cr

(23)

p2

Ncr
N

Natural frequencies of single mass systems

p k /m
Letting

(10)

= W/g

and noting that W/k = st

(24)

st is the static deflection of the mass due to a force equal to its


weight (the force applied in the direction of motion).

g
p
st
1
f
2
st is expressed in m,

(25)

g
st

T 2 st

(26)
(27)

Relationship between Simple oscillator and Simple pendulum

g
st

Hence, st = L = 0.025 m

f 3.1 cps

st = L = 0.25 m

f 1.0 cps

st = L = 2.50 m

f 0.3 cps

g
L

Effective stiffness ke and static deflection st

ke

g
st

ke - the static force which when applied to the mass will


deflect the mass by a unit amount.
st - the static deflection of the mass due to its own weight
the force (weight) being applied in the direction of
motion.

(28)

Determination of Force - Displacement relation, F-

1. Apply the static force ,F on the mass in the direction of motion


2. Compute or measure the resulting deflection of the mass ,
Then , ke = F /

st = due to F = W

Examples

Rigid ,massless

(a)

F
k

F a
k

Therefore, e L

a
L

From Equilibrium,

st

From Compatibility,

L F

a k

or

L
F
a

L

a

F
k

W
k

(29)

(b)

(c)

Rigid bar

k2

k1

k3

Rigid bar

k1

k2

L
L

F
F = F1 + F2

k3
k1

k2

k1

k2

F
F

= 1 + 2 =
k3 a 2
k1 k 2
L

a
F k1 k 2
L
2

F a
k e k1 k 2
L

(30)

1
1
1

F ke a 2
k3
k

k
1
2
L

(31)

(d)

kn

k1

ke = k1 +k2 + + kn
(e)

(f)

Flexible but mass less

ke
(32)

3EI
L3

k1
k2

..
.

ke

kn

12EI
L3

e = 1 + 2 + + n

F F
F

......
k1 k 2
kn

1
1
1
1

......
F k e k1 k 2
kn

ke
(33)

3EI
L3

(34)

Rigid deck; columns mass less


& axially inextensible

(g)

(h)
k2

EI

L1

E1I1

E2I2

k1

L2

Lateral Stiffness :

E1 I1
E2 I 2
ke 12 3 3 3
L
L

kb

k2

k2

k1

kb+k1

1
1
1
1
1

ke k2 kb k1 k 2 3EI k
1
L3

(i)
EI

1 FL3 5 RL3

3 EI 48 EI

Eliminating R,
L/2

L/2
F

R
3

5 FL
1 RL R
a

48 EI 24 EI
k
where, R

5
EI
2 48 3
L

kL3
768 7
3
1
FL
EI

kL3 3 EI
768 32
EI

where,

kL3
768 32
F
EI
EI
ke
3 3
3
kL

L
768 7
EI

(l)

(j)

L/2

L/2

ke

L/2

48 EI
L3

L/2

768EI
ke
7 L3

(k)

(m)

L/2

L/2

ke

192 EI
L3

3EIL
ke 2 2
ab

(n)

(p)
L
2R
d

Gd 4
k
64nR 3

n number of turns
(0)

AE
L

A Cross sectional area


(q)

EI
k
L
I - moment of inertia of cross sectional area
L - Total length

GJ
L

J Torsional constant of cross


section

Natural frequencies of simple MDF systems treated as SDF


m
a
A, E, I, L
(ii)

(i)

(iii)

(iv)

Columns are massless and can move only in the plane of paper

Vertical mode of vibration

ke

2 AE
L

pv

2 AE
mL

(35)

For pitching or rocking mode


1 .. a 2a AE
y

ya 0
2
2 3
L
1 .. AE
ay
y0
6
L
1 .. AE
my
y0
6
L

pp

AE/L

(AE/L)y

6 AE
3 pv
mL

AE/L

(AE/L)y

(36)

For Lateral mode


2

12 EI
EI
AE r
ke 2 3 24 3 24

L
L
L L
r is the radius of gyration of cross section of each column
12 EI
EI
AE r
ke 2 3 24 3 24

L
L
L L

plateral < paxial < ppitching

(37)

Free Vibration of Damped SDOF

Free Vibration of damped SDOF systems

& cx& kx 0
mx&
c
k
x& x 0
m
m
&
& 2 p&x 2 0
xpx

&
x&

where,

(A)

k
m
c
c

(Dimensionless parameter)
2mp 2 km

(38)

Solution of Eq.(A) may be obtained by a function in the form x = e rt


where r is a constant to be determined. Substituting this into (A) we
obtain,

ert r 2
pr
2

In order for this equation to be valid for all values of t,

r2
pr
2
or

r1,2 p 2 1

rt

rt

Thus e 1 and e 2 are solutions and, provided r 1 and r2 are different


from one another, the complete solution is

x c1e c2e
r1t

r2t

The constants of integration c1 and c2 must be evaluated from the


initial conditions of the motion.
Note that for >1, r1 and r2 are real and negative
for <1, r1 and r2 are imaginary and
for

=1, r1= r2= -p

Solution depends on whether


equal to one.

is smaller than, greater than, or

For 1 (Light Damping) :


x t e pt A cos pd t B sin pd t

(39)

2
p

p
1

where, d

(40)

A and B are related to the initial conditions as follows

A x0
v0

x0
2
pd
1
In other words, Eqn. 39 can also be written as,

x t e

pt

o
xo cos pd t

2
pd

xo sin pd t

(41)

Td = 2 / pd

2
pd xn

Extremum point ( x(t ) 0 )


Point of tangency ( cos( pd t ) 1)

Damped natural period


Xn+1

pd p 1 Damped circular natural frequency


2

Td

2
pd

Damped natural period

pd p 1 2 Damped circular natural frequency

Motion known as Damped harmonic motion


A system behaving in this manner (i.e., a system for which 1 ) is said
to be Underdamped or Subcritically damped

The behaviour of structure is generally of this type, as the practical range


of is normally < 0.2

The equation shows that damping lowers the natural frequency of the
system, but for values of < 0.2 the reduction is for all practical purpose
negligible.

Unless otherwise indicated the term natural frequency will refer to the
frequency of the undamped system

Rate of Decay of Peaks

xn 1
e
xn

2
pd

exp 2

2
1

(42)

xn 1
xn

Logarithmic decrement

Defined as

xn
ln
xn 1

(43)

It is an alternative measure of damping and is related to


the equation

; 2

by
(44)

For small values of damping,

x n

2
xn

(45)

When damping is quite small,

1
xn
ln
N xn N

(46)

For 1 (Heavy Damping)


Such system is said to be over damped or super critically damped.

x(t ) C1e ( ) t C2e ( ) t


i.e., the response equation will be sum of two exponentially
decaying curve
In this case r1 and r2 are real negative roots.
x
xo

For 1
Such system is said to be critically damped.

x (t ) C1e pt C2te pt
With initial conditions,

x (t ) x0 1 pt v0t e pt
The value of c for which
of damping

Ccr 2mp 2 km
Therefore,

C

Ccr

is known as the critical coefficient

(47)
(48)

Response to Impulsive Forces


Response to simple Force Pulses
Response to a Step Pulse
Response to a Rectangular Pulse
Response to Half-Sine Pulse
Response to Half-cycle Force Pulses
Response to Step force
Response to Multi-Cycle Force Pulses

Response to Impulsive Forces


Let the duration of force,t1 be small compared to
the natural period of the system
The effect of the force in this case is equivalent to
an instantaneous velocity change without
corresponding change in displacement

Po
P(t)

t1 << T

The velocity,V0 ,imparted to the system is obtained


from the impulse-momentum relationship
mV0 = I = Area under forcing function = P0 t1

where ,

(49)

1
for a rectangular pulse
2 / for a half-sine wave
1 / 2 for a triangular pulse

Pt
m

0 1

Therefore, V0 =

(50)

For an undamped system, the maximum response is determined


from as ,

P0 t1 P0 kt1 ( x ) pt
st 0
1
p m p
k mp

xmax V
0

Therefore,

xmax 2 ft1( xst )0

or

t1
xmax
2 ft1 2
( xst ) 0
T

(51)

Damping has much less importance in controlling maximum


response of a structure to impulsive load.
The maximum will be reached in a very short time,
before
the damping forces can absorb much energy
from the
structure.
For this reason only undamped response to Impulsive
loading is considered.

Important: in design of Vehicles such as trucks, automobiles


or traveling cranes

Response to simple Force Pulses

P (t )
&
x& 2 px& p x
m
2

P(t)

(52)

or

&
x& 2 px& p 2 x p 2 xst (t )
t

(53)

P (t )
where, xst (t )
k
P (t )
= Static displacement induced by
kexciting force at time, t

General Form of solution:

x(t) = xhomogeneous + xparticular

(54)

Response to a Step Pulse

For undamped system, x + p2 x = p2 (xst)o


P(t)

Po
where (xst)o = k

Po

x(t) = A cos pt + B sin pt + (xst)o


0

At t = 0 , x = 0 and v = 0
A = - (xst)o and B = 0
t
x(t) = (xst)o [1 cos pt] = [ 1 cos 2 T ]

(55)

Response to a Step Pulse.


=0

x (t ) 2
( xst )o
1
0

(t / T)
For damped systems it can be shown that:

x(t ) ( xst )0 1 e

xmax
1 e
( xst )0

pt

1 2


cos pd t
sin pd t
2

(56)

Response to a Rectangular Pulse


For t t1, solution is the same as before,

x(t ) xst 1 cos pt

(55)

For t t1, we have a condition of free vibration,


and the solution can be obtained by application of Eq.17a as follows:
2 Vi
x(t ) xi
p

where,

sin p(t t1)

tan x

Vi /

xi xst 1 cos pt
0

Vi p sin pt1

P(t)
Po
t1

Response to a Rectangular Pulse


2 pt1
2sin
1-cos pt1
pt1
2
tan

pt1
pt1 tan 2
sin pt1
2sin
cos
2
2
pt
hence,
1
2

t1
So, x(t ) (1cos pt1) sin pt1 ( xst )0 sin p(t t1) p
2

t
pt

t
x(t ) ( xst )0 2(1 cos pt1 ) sin p t 1 2 xst 0 sin 1 sin p t 1
2
2

2
(Amplitude of motion)

(57(a))

(57(b))

x(t)/(xst)0

Response to a Rectangular Pulse


2

0
x(t)/(xst)0

t1/T=2

1.68

t/T

t1/T=1.5

t/T
t1/T=1/

t1/T=1 1/6

t/T

t/T

In the plots, we have implicitly assumed that T constant and t1 varies;


Results also applicable when t1 = fixed and T varies

Dynamic response of undamped SDF system to rectangular


pulse force. Static solution is shown by dotted lines

(a)

Forced response
Free response

(b)

Overall maximum

Response to rectangular pulse force: (a) maximum


response during each of forced vibration and free
vibration phases; (b) shock spectrum

Response to a Rectangular Pulse


3

Impulsive solution, 2 f t1

xmax 2
xst 0
1

f t1 = t 1/T
This diagram Is known as the response spectrum of the
system for the particular forcing function considered.
Note that with xmax determined, the maximum spring force
Fmax = k xmax
In fact,

Fmax kxmax xmax

P
Fst
xst
0
0

(58)

Response to Half-Sine Pulse


P(t) = Po sin t, where = / t1
x + p2 x = p2 (xst)o sin t

for t

P(t)

POsin t

t1

for t

=0
for t
t1
( xst )0
sin pt ]
x
(
t
)

[sin

t1,
p

1
p

or

x(t )

for t

t1

t1

xst


1 1 T
4 t1

sin

t 1T

sin 2 t
t1 2 t1
T

(59)

2
p

x(t) 2 cos pt ( xst )0 sin pt 1 t


2
2 T

t cos t
T ( x ) sin 2 t 1 t
x(t ) T

st 0

or

0.25 t
T

2 T

(60)

Note that in these solutions, t1 and T enter as a ratio and that


similarly, t appears as the ratio t /T. In other words, f t 1 = t1 / T may
be interpreted either as a duration or as a frequency parameter
In the following response histories, t1 will be presumed to be the
same but the results in a given case are applicable to any
combination of t1 and T for which t1/T has the indicated value
In the derivation of response to a half-sine pulse and in the
response histories, the system is presumed to be initially at rest

Dynamic response of undamped SDF system to half cycle


sine pulse force; static solution is shown by dashed lines

Response to half cycle sine pulse force (a) response maxima during
forced vibration phase; (b) maximum responses during each of
forced vibration and free vibration phases; (c) shock spectrum

2ft1 4ft
1
ft1

t1

t1

t1
ft1

Shock spectra for three force pulses of equal magnitude

Response to Half-cycle Force Pulses


For low values of ft1 (say < 0.2), the maximum value of x max or AF is
dependent on the area under the force pulse i.e, Impulsive-sensitive.
Limiting value is governed by Impulse Force Response.

At high values of ft1, rate of application of load controls the AF. The rise
time for the rectangular pulse, t r, is zero, whereas for the half-sine pulse
it is finite. For all continuous inputs, the high-frequency limit of AF is
unity.

The absolute maximum value of the spectrum is relatively insensitive to


the detailed shape of the pulse(2 Vs 1.7), but it is generally larger for
pulses with small rise times (i.e, when the peak value of the force is
attained rapidly).

The frequency value ft1 corresponding to the peak spectral ordinate is


also relatively insensitive to the detailed shape of the pulse. For the
particular inputs investigated, it may be considered to range between ft 1
= 0.5 and 0.8.
* AF=Amplification factor

Conditions under which response is static:


On the basis of the spectrum for the ramp pulse presented next, it is
concluded that the AF may be taken as unity when:

ftr = 2

(61)

For the pulse of arbitrary shape, tr should be interpreted as the


horizontal projection of a straight line extending from the beginning of
the pulse to its peak ordinate with a slope approximately equal to the
maximum slope of the pulse. This can normally be done by inspection.
For a discontinuous pulse, tr = 0 and the frequency value satisfying ftr
= 2 is, as it should be, infinite. In other words, the high-frequency value
of the AF is always greater than one in this case

Response to Step force


For t tr

t
x(t ) ( xst ) 0
tr

sin pt

pt r

For t tr

t
1 T
2 t
( xst ) 0
sin

t
2

t
T


r
r

P(t)

Po
t

tr

sin pt
1
x(t ) ( xst ) 0 1

sin p (t tr )
ptr
ptr

(t tr )
1 T
t
1 T
( xst ) 0 1
sin 2
sin 2

t
T
2

t
T

r
r

tr

P0

Differentiating and equating to zero, the peak time is


obtained as:

1 cos ptr
tan ptr
sin ptr

P0

tr

(tr t )
tr

Substituting these quantities into x(t), the peak amplitude is found as:

xmax
1
1
( xst )0
ptr
[1

2(1 cos ptr ) 1

pt
2
sin r
ptr
2

t
1T
sin r
tr
T

xmax
( xst )0

f tr

For Rectangular Pulse:

x(t ) ( xst ) 0 [1 cos pt ]

pt1

t1
( xst ) 0 2 sin sin p t
2

for t

t1

P(t)
Po

for t t1

t
Half-Sine Pulse:

x(t )

( xst )0
2

1 T
1
4 t1

sin

t 1 T
t

sin 2 for t t1
t1 2 t1
T

P(t)
POsint

( xst )0
( ft1 ) cos ft1 f sin 2 ft - ft1
2
0.25 ( ft1 )
t1

Design Spectrum for Half-Cycle Force Pulses


2
A
B

xmax
(x xt )0

ft1=0.6

ft1= 2

ft1
Line OA defined by equation.51 (i.e

Ordinate of point B taken as 1.6 and abscissa as shown

The frequency beyond which AF=1 is defined by equation. 61

The transition curve BC is tangent at B and has a cusp at C

xmax
= 2 f t1 = 2
( xst )0

Spectrum applicable to undamped systems.

t1 )
T

Response to Multi-Cycle Force Pulses


Effect of Full-Cycle Sine Pulse

The high-frequency, right hand limit is defined by the rules given


before

The peak value of the spectrum in this case is twice as large as


for the half-sine pulse, indicating that this peak is controlled by
the periodicity of the forcing function. In this case, the peak
values of the responses induced by the individual half-cycle
pulses are additive

The peak value of the spectrum occurs, as before, for a value


ft1=0.6

The characteristics of the spectrum in the left-handed, lowfrequency limit cannot be determined in this case by application
of the impulse-momentum relationship. However, the concepts
may be used, which will be discussed later.

Effect of n Half-Sine Pulses


The absolute maximum value of the spectrum in this case occurs
at a value of, ft1=0.5
Where t1 is the duration of each pulse and the value of the peak is
approximately equal to: xmax = n (/2) (xst)o

(62)

(63)

Effect of a sequence of Impulses


I
t1

x(t)
x(t)

I/mp

Suppose that t1 = T/2


Effect of first pulse

I/mp
Effect of second pulse

x(t)

2I/mp
t

Combined effect of two pulses

Effect of a sequence of Impulses

For n equal impulses, of successively opposite signs, spaced at


intervals t1 = T / 2 and xmax = n I/(mp)
(64)

For n equal impulses of the same sign, the above equation holds
when the pulses are spaced at interval t1 = T

For n unequal impulses spaced at the critical spacings noted


above, xmax = Ij /(mp)
(summation over j for 1 to n). Where Ij is the magnitude of the jth
impulse

If spacing of impulses are different, the effects are combined


vectorially

(65)

Response of Damped systems to Sinusoidal Force

Response of Damped systems to Sinusoidal Force


P(t) = P0 sint
where =

/ t1= Circular frequency

P(t)

of the exciting force


t1

Solution:

The Particular solution in this case may be taken as


x(t) = M sint + N cost

(a)

Substituting Eq.(a) into Eq.52, and combining all terms involving sint
and cos t, we obtain

[- 2 M - 2 p N p 2 M ]sin t [- 2 N 2 p M p 2 N ]cos t p 2 ( X st ) 0 sin t

This leads to
(p2-2)M - 2 pN = p2(xst)0

(c)

2 pM+ (p2-2)N = 0
Where
M=


1-
p


1-
p


+4 2
p

(x st )0

The solution in this case is

x(t) = e- pt(A cos pD t +B sin pD t) +


where

p 2ft1

tan

2
(1- 2 )

N= -


1-
p

(x st )0
(1- ) +4
2 2

2 2


+4 2
p

sin (t )

(x st )0

(66)
(67)
(68)

Steady State Response

P(t)

x(t)

x(t)

(x st ) 0
AF

1
(1- ) 4
2

x max

(x st ) 0

Note that at

sin(t - )

1
(1- 2 ) 2 4 2 2

1
1, AF

p
2

(69)

(70)
(71)

AF

Effect of damping

Reduces the response, and the greater the amount of


damping, the greater the reduction.
The effect is different in different regions of the spectrum.
The greatest reduction is obtained where most needed (i.e., at
and near resonance).
Near resonance, response is very sensitive to variation in
(see Eq.71). Accordingly, the effect of damping must be
considered and the value of must be known accurately in
this case.

Resonant Frequency and Amplitude


res p 1- 2 2
(AF) max

1
2 1- 2

These equations are valid only for

For values of

(72)
2

(73)

1
2

1
< 1
2
res = 0
(A.F.)max = 1

(74)

Transmissibility of system
The dynamic force transmitted to the base of the SDOF system is

&
cx

& k x
F kx cx
k

(75)

Substituting x from Eq.(69), we obtain

F k

P0
k

Noting that

1
(1- 2 ) 2 4 2 2

[sin(t - )

c
cos(t - )]
k

c
c

2 and combining the sine and


2
k
mp
p

cosine terms into a single sine term, we obtain


F(t)

P0

1 4 2 2
(1- 2 ) 2 4 2 2

sin(t - )

where is the phase angle defined by tan = 2

(76)

(77)

Transmissibility of system
The ratio of the amplitudes of the transmitted force and the applied
force is defined as the transmissibility of the system, TR, and is
given by
F
TR 0
P0

1 4 2 2
(1- ) 4
2

The variation of TR with and is shown in the following figure. For


the special case of =0, Eq.78 reduces to
TR

1
(1- 2 )

which is the same expression as for the amplification factor xmax/(xst)0

(78)

Transmissibility of system

TR

Transmissibility for harmonic excitation

Irrespective of the amount of damping involved, TR<1 only for


values of (/p)2 >2. In other words, in order for the transmitted force
to be less than the applied force, the support system must be
flexible.
in cms

f e f e st
Noting that
2
p f
4.98

The static deflection of the system, st must be st


0.5

st

in

cms

0.1

10

fe

40

fe is the frequency of the exciting force, in cps

50
fe2

(79)

In the frequency range where TR<1, damping increases the


transmissibility. In spite of this it is desirable to have some
amount of damping to minimize the undesirable effect of the
nearly resonant condition which will develop during starting and
stopping operations as the exciting frequency passes through the
natural frequency of the system.
When is negligibly small, the flexibility of the supports needed
to ensure a prescribed value of TR may be determined from
1

TR

-1

(80a)

Proceeding as before, we find that the value of st corresponding to


Eq.(80a) is

1 2
st ; 1
TR f e 2

(in)

or

1 25
st ; 1
TR
fe2

(cm)

(80b)

Application
Consider a reciprocating or rotating machine which, due to unbalance
of its moving parts, is acted upon by a force P0 sint.
If the machine were attached rigidly to a supporting structure as
shown in Fig.(a), the amplitude of the force transmitted to the
structure would be P0 (i.e., TR=1).
If P0 is large, it may induce undesirable vibrations in the structure, and
it may be necessary to reduce the magnitude of the transmitted force.
This can be done by the use of an approximately designed springdashpot support system, as shown in Fig (b) and (c).
P0 sint
P0 sint
m

P0 sint
m
(a)

k
(b)

mb

k
(c)

If the support flexibility is such that is less than the value defined
by Eq.(79), the transmitted force will be greater than applied, and
the insertion of the flexible support will have an adverse effect.

The required flexibility is defined by Eq.(80b), where TR is the


desired transmissibility.

The value of may be increased either by decreasing the spring


stiffness, k, or increasing the weight of the moving mass, as shown
in Fig.(c).

Application to Ground-Excited systems


k
c
y(t)

x(t)

For systems subjected to a sinusoidal base displacement, y(t) =


y0 sint it can be shown that the ratio of the steady state
displacement amplitude, xmax, to the maximum displacement of
the base motion, yo, is defined in Eq.(78).
Thus TR has a double meaning, and Eq.(78) can also be used
to proportion the support systems of sensitive instruments or
equipment items that may be mounted on a vibrating structure.
For systems for which ,may be considered negligible, the value

of st
required to limit the transmissibility TR = xmax/y0 to a
specified value may be determined from Eq.(80b).

Rotating Unbalance

m
e t

k/2

k/2

Total mass of machine = M


unbalanced mass
=m
eccentricity
=e
angular velocity
=

d2
( M m) &
x& m 2 ( x e sin t ) cx& kx 0
dt

& cx& kx me 2 sin t


Mx&

Reciprocating unbalance

m
L

F me sin t sin 2t
L

- radius of crank shaft

- length of the connectivity rod

e/L - is small quantity second term


can be neglected

Determination of Natural frequency and Damping


Steady State Response Curves
Structure subjected to a sinusoidally varying force of fixed amplitude
for a series of frequencies. The exciting force may be generated by
two masses rotating about the same axis in opposite direction

For each frequency, determine the amplitude of the resulting


steady-state displacement ( or a quantity which is proportional to x,
such as strain in a member) and plot a frequency response curve
(response spectrum)
For negligibly small damping, the natural frequency is the value of f e
for which the response is maximum. When damping is not
negligible, determine p =2f from Eq.72. The damping factor ,
may be determined as follows:

Determination of Natural frequency and Damping


Resonant Amplification Method
Half-Power or Bandwidth Method
Duhamels Integral

Determination of Natural frequency and Damping

(a) Resonant Amplification Method

Determine maximum amplification (A.F)max=(x0)max/ (xst)0

Evaluate

from Eq.73 or its simpler version, Eq.71, when is small

Limitations: It may not be possible to apply a sufficiently large P 0 to


measure (xst)0 reliably, and it may not be possible to evaluate
(xst)0 reliably by analytical means.

(b) Half-Power or Bandwidth Method:

In this method is determined from the part of the spectrum near the
peak steps involved are as follows,

1. Determine Peak of curve, (x0)max

2. Draw a horizontal line at a response level of 1/ 2 x0 max, and


determine the intersection points with the response spectrum.
These points are known as the half-power points of the spectrum

f
3. Evaluate the bandwidth, defined as f

(xo)max

xo

1
2

(xo)st
f
f

(xo)max

fe

Determination of Natural frequency and Damping


4.For small amounts of damping, it can be shown that is related
to the bandwidth by the equation
1 f

2 f

Limitations:
Unless the peaked portion of the spectrum is determine accurately,
it would be impossible to evaluate reliably the damping factor.

As an indication of the frequency control capability required for the


exciter , note that for f = 5cps, and = 0.01, the frequency
difference

f = 2(0.01)5 = 0.1cps
with the Cal Tech vibrator it is possible to change the frequency to
a value that differs by one tenth of a percent from its previous
value.

(81)

Derivation

1 1
1

2
2
2 2 (1 ) (2 )

1
1

2
2 2
8
1 4 2 2

2 1 2 2 2 1 2
12 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
22 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2

1
1 ( f1 f 2 )
(1 2 )
2
2
f

( f 2 f1 )
( f1 f 2 )

( f1 f 2 )

Other Methods for Evaluating response of SDF Systems


(c) Duhamels Integral
In this approach the forcing function is conceived as being made
up of a series of vertical strips, as shown in the figure, the effect
of each strip is then computed by application of the solution for
free vibration, and the total effect is determined by superposition
of the component effects
P(t)
P()

x(t)
d

The strip of loading shown shaded represents and impulse,


I = P() d
For an undamped SDF system, this induces a displacement

P ( )d
x
sin p (t - )
mp

(82)

The displacement at time t induced by integration as

1 t
x(t )
P ( ) sin p t d
mp 0
t

or

x (t ) p xst ( ) sin p t d
0

(83)

(84)

Implicit in this derivation is the assumption that the system is initially (at
t=0) at rest. For arbitrary initial conditions, Eqn 84 should be augmented
by the free vibration terms as follows
t
V0
x t x0 cos pt sin pt p xst sin p t d
0
p

For viscously damped system with 1 ,becomes

P d p t
x(t )
e
sin pd t
mpd
Leading to the following counterpart of Eqn.84

x t

p
1 2

xst e p t sin pd t d

The effect of the initial motion in this case is defined by Eqn. 41


Eqns. 84 and 87 are referred to in the literature with different names.
They are most commonly known as Duhamels Integrals, but are also
identified as the superposition integrals, convolution integrals, or
Dorels integrals.
Example1: Evaluate response to rectangular pulse, take 0 and
For

t t1

x0 v0 0

P(t)

x t p xst o sin p t d xst o cos p t


0

For

t t1

t1

t
0

xst o 1 cos pt

x t p xst 0 sin p t - d 0 xst 0 cos p t - t1 - cos pt


0

Po

t1

Generalised SDOF System

Generalised SDOF System

m*q&&(t ) c*q&(t ) k *q(t ) p* (t )


q(t )

Single generalised coordinate expressing the


motion of the system

m*

generalised mass

c*

generalised damping coefficient

k*

generalised stiffness

p*

generalised force

y x, t x q t

(a)

(b)

m(x)

m1,j1

m2, j2

x1
l

m* m( x ) ( x ) 2 dx mi i2 ji i2
0

c1
c(x)

(c)

c2

a1(x)

c* c( x ) ( x ) 2 dx EI ( x ) " ( x )a1 ( x )dx ci i2

(d)

k1

k2

k(x)
(e)

k * k ( x ) 2 ( x )dx EI ( x ) " ( x ) 2 dx ki i2 N ( x ) ' ( x ) 2 dx

P(x,t)

Pi(t)

p* p( x, t ) ( x )dx pi (t ) i ( x )
0

Note: Force direction and displacement direction is same (+ve)

Effect of damping

Viscous damping
Coulomb damping
Hysteretic damping

Effect of damping

Energy dissipated into heat or radiated away

The loss of energy from the oscillatory system results in the


decay of amplitude of free vibration.

In steady-state forced vibration ,the loss of energy is


balanced by the energy which is supplied by the excitation.

Effect of damping

Energy dissipated mechanism may emanate from


(i)

Friction at supports & joints

(ii) Hysteresis in material ,internal molecular friction,


sliding friction
(iii) Propagation of elastic waves into foundation ,radiation
effect
(iv) Air-resistance,fluid resistance
(v) Cracks in concrete-may dependent on past load
history etc..,
Exact mathematical description is quite complicated &not
suitable for vibration analysis.

Simplified damping models have been proposed .These models


are found to be adequate in evaluating the system response.
Depending on the type of damping present ,the force displacement
relationship when plotted may differ greatly.
Force - displacement curve enclose an area ,referred to as the
hysteresis loop,that is proportional to the energy lost per cycle.
Wd
Fd dx

In general Wd depends on temperature,frequency,amplitude.


For viscous type

Wd
Fd dx
Fd cx&

& cx&dt c X
Wd c X
cxdx
2

cos 2 (t )dt c X 2

(a) Viscous damping


Fd(t) = c
c

x&
coefficient of damping

2
c

X
Wviscous - work done for one full cycle =

Fd
cX

-X

X(t)

(b) Equivalent viscous damping:

Ceq X 2 Wd
Wd
Ceq
X 2
2Ws
2k
Cc
where k
, Ws strain energy

X2
Wd
C

Cc 4 Ws

Fd+kx

ellipse

(b) Coulomb damping:

Fd

Wcoulomb 4 F X

It results from sliding of two dry surfaces

-X

X(t)

The damping force=product of the normal


force & the coefficient of friction (independent
of the velocity once the motion starts.
Linear decay

4Fd/k

x1

x2
x-1

Frequency of oscillation

k
m

1
k ( X 12 X 21 ) Fd ( X 1 X 1 ) 0
2
1
k ( X 1 X 1 ) Fd
2

X1 X 2

4 Fd
k

Decay in amplitude per cycle

The motion will cease ,however when the amplitude becomes


less than , at which the spring force is insufficient to overcome
the static friction.

(c) Hysteretic damping (material damping or structural damping):


- Inelastic deformation of the material composing the device
Fd
1
Fy
W
4F X
hysteretic

Fy is the yield force


Xy Displacement at which material first yields

(d) Structural damping


x&
fD k x
x&

x
xy

WD 2 kX 2 X 2
Energy dissipated is frequency independent.

-x

xy

Kh=elastic
damper
stiffness

Equivalent viscous Coefficient

a) Coulomb Ceq=
b)

4F
WX

4 Fy 1
Hysteretic Ceq=
X

c) Structural Ceq=

2k s

Reference
Dynamics of Structures: Theory and Application to
Earthquake Engineering Anil K. Chopra, Prentice Hall
India
Reading Assignment
Course notes & Reading material

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