Renewable Energy Resources

2008

HYDROELECTRIC
ENERGY
Antnio F. O. Falco

SOLAR ENERGY flux on the Earth surface:

18

1.5 10 kWh/year

About 25% consumed in evaporation of water

Almost all this energy is released
in water vapour condensation
(clouds, rain) & radiated back
into outer space

Only 0.06% remains as potential

energy stored in water that falls
on hills and mountains

HYDRO ENERGY RESOURCE

Total resource: 40 000 TWh/year (about 15 times total world
hydroelectric production

Technical potential: about: 14 000 15 000 TWh/year

Total world electricity consumption: 16 400 TWh

Prefixes:
k 103

kilo

T 1012

tera

M 106

mega

P 1015

peta

G 109

giga

E 1018

exa

Regional hydro potential output

Techical potential
TWh/year

Annual output
TWh/year

Output as % of
technical potential

Asia

5093

572

11%

South America

2792

507

18%

Europe

2706

729

27%

Africa

1888

80

4,20%

North America

1668

665

40%

Oceania

232

40

17%

14379

2593

18%

Region

World

Based on average output 1999-2002

Source: G. Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2004.

15,8% of world electrical

energy consumption

Technical potential
Economic potential
Exploited potential

Africa

Asia

Australasia/
Oceania

Europe

North & Central South America

America

Exploited hydro potential by continent

Weir and intake (dique ou aude)

Forebay tank
(cmara de carga)

Canal
(canal)

Penstock
(conduta forada)

Power house
(casa das
mquinas)

Small hydro site layout

Large hydro
10 MW

Small hydro
500 kW

Mini-hydro
100 kW
Micro-hydro

Note: there are other definitions.

Small hydroelectric plants (< 10 MW)

World totals

Installed capacity
(GW)

Annual production
TWh/year

740

2700

Small (< 10 MW)

50 a 60

150

Small/total

6 a 7%

6%

Total (large + small)

Installed capacity (GW) in small hydroelectric plants:

China

26

Japan

3.5

Austria, France, Italy, USA > 2 each

Brazil, Norway, Spain
Portugal
TOTAL

> 1 cada
0.3 (about 100 plants)
50 to 60 GW

Installed capacity and production of SHPs (<10MW) in 30 European countries

H b = gross head (altura de

queda bruta) in metres

L = losses in canal, pennstock, in metres

Canal

H b = gross head

Pennstock

H H b L = net head (altura de queda disponvel)

(altura de queda
bruta)

Turbine
B

Q = flow rate or intake (caudal), in m3/s

Pb g Q H b = gross power (potncia bruta), in Watts
Pav g Q H

= power available to turbine

Pt t g Q H = turbine power output

t turbine efficiency

Pe et g Q H = electrical power output

e electrical efficiency

Hydraulic turbine

H = (net) head

rated

Q = flow rate
N = rotational speed

Dimensional analysis

N, H = constant

N Q

( gH )

3 4

rated

(Dimensionless) specific speed

H (m)
Q (m3/s)
N ( rad/s)
g ( m/s 2 )

is directly related to
geometry (type) of turbine

Francis

Pelton

Kaplan

Rotors of hydraulic turbines with different specific speeds .

Correspondence between specific speed

and type of hydraulic turbine (Pelton,

Francis, Kaplan)

N Q

( gH )

3 4

rated

Pelton turbines (low )

N Q
( gH )

3 4

Usually:
High H
Small Q

rated

Twin jet Pelton turbine

wheel or runner

nozzle

pennstock

Large Pelton turbine

Vertical axis
6 jets (6 nozzles)

Francis turbines (medium )

N Q

( gH )

3 4

rated

Francis turbine

Spiral
casing

runner

Guide
vanes
draft
tube

Reversible Francis pump-turbine

In times of reduced energy demand, excess
electrical capacity in the grid (e.g. from wind
turbines) may be used to pump water,
previously used to generate power, back into
an upper reservoir.
This water will then be used to generate
electricity when needed. This can be done by
a reversible pump-turbine and an electrical
generator-motor.

Kaplan turbines (high )

N Q

Usually:

( gH )

3 4

rated

Low H
Large Q

Kaplan turbine

Electrical
generator

Blade angle can be

controlled
spiral
casing

Guide
vanes

runner

Kaplan turbine
Double control
Guide-vane
control

Rotor-blade
control

Propeller turbine (small power plants)

Simple control: rotor blades are fixed

A variant of the Kaplan turbine: the horizontal axis

Bulb turbine
guide
vanes

Used for very low heads, and

in tidal power plants
Tidal plant of La Rance,
France

Cross-flow turbine (also known as Mitchel-Banki

and Ossberger turbine)

Used in small hydropower

plants.
The water crosses twice
(inwards and outwards) the
rotor blades.
Cheap and versatile.
Peak efficiency lower than for
conventional turbines.
Favourable efficiency-flow
curve.

Cross-flow turbine

Head-flow ranges of small hydro turbines

H
(m)

Q (m3/s)
Ranges of application of Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines (adapted from
Bureau of Reclamation, USA, 1976). Recommended rotational speeds are
submultiples of 3000 rpm, for sinchronous generators.

How to estimate the type and size of a turbine, given (rated

values of):
H = (net) head,
Q = flow rate,
N = rotational speed ?
N Q

( gH )

3 4

Type (geometry)
rated

Pelton turbine

gH

0
.
59
2 2
N D

Diameter D

Francis and
Kaplan
turbines
N Q

( gH )

3 4

rated

D( gH )1 4

Specific diameter
rated

(dimensionless)

1.0
Pelton
0.8
Efficiency

Crossflow

0.6

Kaplan
Francis

0.4

Propeller

0.2
0.0
0.0

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Flow rate as proportion of design flow rate

Part-flow efficiency of small hydraulic turbines

1.0

HYDROLOGY
Watershed (of hydropower scheme) (bacia
hidrogrfica)
Flow (rate) (caudal)

Basic hydrological data required to plan a (small) hydropower scheme:

Mean daily flow series at scheme water intake for long period (~20 years).
This information is rarely available.
Indirect procedures are often necessary.

Streamgauging
station

Power
plant

Indirect procedure:
Usually consists of transposition of sufficiently long (20 years) flow-records
from other watershed (bacia hidrogrfica) equipped with a stream-gauging
station (estao de medio de caudal).
Watershed of hydropower scheme and water shed of stream-gauging
station should be located in same region, of similar area, with similar
hydrological behaviour (similar mean annual rain fall level) and similar
geological constitution.
Rain gauges (medidores de precipitao) should be available inside (or
near) both watersheds, and be used for simultaneous rain-fall measurements.

Relation between annual

precipitation and runoff at
stream-gauging station (per
unit watershed area)

By transposition relationship between annual

precipitation and power-plant flow rate at hydro-power
scheme.

Mean annual flow duration curve

Q mean annual
flow rate

10
8
6

Q
Q 4
2
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time fraction flow rate is equalled or exceeded

Dimensionless form of the mean annual flow duration curve

ENERGY EVALUATION CASE 1

Water reservoir has small storage capacity.
Run-of-the-river plant (central de fio de gua).
Case of many (most?) small hydropower plants.

Storage capacity is neglected.

Energy evaluation from the flow duration curve.
No time-series (day-by-day prediction) of power output.
At most, seasonal variations are to be predicted.

Run-of-river plant and flow duration curve.

Q
Q

5
4

Max. turbine
flow

Min. turbine
flow

0
Ecological flow

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time-fraction flow rate is equalled or exceeded

Run-of-river hydropower plant (fio de gua)

Required data for energy evaluation:
Flow duration curve for hydropower scheme.
Maximum and minimum turbine flow rates (to be specified
from turbine characteristic curves).
Ecological discharge (and others, required for the
consumption between the weir and the turbine outlet).
Head loss L in diversion circuit as function of flow rate.
Efficiency curves of turbine and electrical equipment.

Maximum and minimum turbine flow rates to be

decided based on turbine size and efficiency curve.
1.0
Pelton
0.8
Efficiency

Crossflow

0.6

Kaplan
Francis

0.4

Propeller

0.2
0.0
0.0

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Flow rate as proportion of design flow rate

Part-flow efficiency of small hydraulic turbines

1.0

ENERGY EVALUATION - CASE 2

Second case: water reservoir (lagoon) has

significant or large capacity.

Case of some small and most large hydropower
plants.
Storage capacity must be taken into account.
Energy evaluation is based on the simulation of a
scenario: daily (or hourly) flow-series and exploitation
rules.
Basically the computation consists in the step-bystep numerical integration of a differential equation
(equation of continuity).

Hydropower plant with storage capacity

Required data for energy evaluation:
Time-series of flow into the reservoir (simulated scenario).
Maximum and minimum turbine flow rates (to be specified
from turbine characteristic curves).
Ecological discharge (and others, required for the
consumption between the weir and the turbine outlet).
Head loss L in diversion circuit as function of flow rate.
Efficiency curves of turbine and electrical equipment.
Reservor stage-capacity curve (surface elevation versus
stored water volume).
Exploitation rules (e.g. concentrate energy production in
periods of higher tariff or higher demand).

Exercise
Consider a small run-of-river hydropower plant.
Specify the turbine type and size.
Evaluate the annual production of electrical energy.

Assume:
Annual-average flow into reservoir.
Flow duration curve.
Gross head Hb .
Loss L in hydraulic circuit.
Efficiency curve of turbine, and rated & minimum turbine flow.
Efficiency of electrical equipment.
Ecological flow rate.

10

Exercise
q

Q
( )
Q

or

8
6

Q
Q 4

F (q )
F(q) is fraction of time q is
exceeded.

q ( ) or F(q)

2
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time fraction flow rate is equalled or exceeded

d
F (q ) F (q ) F (q) is probability density function.
dq
F (q ) dq = probability of occurrence of flow between q and q + dq .

F (q ) dq 1
0

q F (q ) dq q
0

Q
1
Q

Exercise
qQ Q

Choice of function F(q)

Weibull distribution (widely used in wind energy):

k
q
F (q ) exp
c

k = shape parameter
c = scale parameter

1
1

(1 k )

gamma function

0,5

0,5000
0

0,55

0,5874
0

0,6

0,6646
4

0,65

0,7319
2

0,7

0,7900
0

0,75

0,8398
8

0,8

0,8826
1

0,9

0,9504
0

1,0

1,0000
0

1,1

1,0363
6

Exercise
Choice of efficiency-flow curve for turbine (typical small Francis
turbine)

Qt
Qt , rated

x Qt Qt , rated

t 25.293 x 5 88.611x 4 119 .89 x 3 79.306 x 2 26.659 x 3.0478

Set a minimum value for the turbine efficiency, e.g. 20% efficiency.
Set the minimum value of the turbine flow rate accordingly.

Exercise
Annual-averaged electrical power output (SI units):

qrated

qmin

Pe Pe F (q )dq g

et ( x) Qt ( x) H b L(Qt ) F ' (q) dq

F ' (q) dq

g et ,rated Qt ,rated H b L(Qt ,rated )

(in W )

qrated

Qecol
Q
Qt q
Q

Q Qecol
Qecol
Q

q
Qt , rated
Qt , rated
Q Qt , rated

Qt

Qmin Qt , min Qecol xmin Qt , rated Qecol

qmin

Q
Q
Q

qrated

Qt , rated Qecol
Q

Exercise

Total electrical energy produced in one year:

Ee,annual Pe 3600 24 365 (in J/year)

Ee,annual Pe 24 365 109

(in GWh/year)

Exercise
Procedure (suggestion)
Fix annual-averaged flow rate into reservoir, e.g. Q 4 m3/s
Fix gross head, e.g. H b 50 m
Fix head loss, proportional to Qt2 ,e.g. such that loss equal to a few percent of
gross head Q
Fix flow duration curve, e.g. based on Weibull distribution
Fix turbine type, turbine efficiency curve and Qt , rated
Fix minimum (dimensionless) turbine flow rate xmin
Fix ecological flow rate Qecol
Assume Qt Qt , rated when Q Qecol Qt , rated
Compute Pe and Ee
Make comparisons as appropriate; look for optimum value of Qt , rated

Some results from Exercise

Francis
turbine

2000
1500
1000

rated
Annualaveraged

2
3
4
5
turbine rated flow m3 s

1500

Cross-flow
turbine

2500
2000

rated

1500

annualaveraged

1000

500
0

500
0

3000

turbine pow er kW

turbine pow er kW

2500

Q 4 m3 s

Ecological flow rate = 0

Head losses = 0

k = 1.6 shape parameter of

Weibull distribution

turbine power kW

H b 50 m

2
4
6
turbine rated flow m3 s

Annual-averaged

1250
1000

Francis

750

Cross-flow

500
250
0

4
6
8
turbine rated flow m3 s

10

12

The two largest hydropower plants in the world

Three Gorges Dam, China

Itaipu, Brazil-Paraguay

THREE GORGES DAM The largest hydropower plant in the world

Yangtze River, China.

Construction: started in 1994; to
be completed in 2009.
Dam - length: 2309m; height:
185m

Reservoir length: 600km

About 1.5 million people had to
be relocated

Three Gorges Dam hydropower plant

Installed power: 22500 MW
34700 MW Francis turbines

Itaipu hydropower plant, Paran River, BrazilParaguay

Construction: 1984-91
Reservoir area: 1350 km2

Installed power: 12870 MW

Total dam length: 7235 m

18 Francis turbines of 715 MW

Dam height: 196 m

Principais bloqueios ao desenvolvimento

de PCHs na EU
Processo de licenciamento
Exigncias especficas locais
Financiamento
Ligao rede elctrica
Venda de electricidade produzida
Quadro regulador incerto
Ausncia de informaes correctas
Recrutamento e formao de tcnicos

Principais bloqueios em Portugal

(FORUM Energias Renovveis em Portugal, 2002)
Dificuldades na obteno de licenciamentos, sujeitos a um processo
extremamente complexo, onde intervm, sem aparente coordenao,
diversas instituies e ministrios.
Dificuldade na ligao rede elctrica nacional por insuficincia da
mesma e, ainda, por outras dificuldades processuais e operacionais.
Ausncia de critrios objectivos na emisso de pareceres de
diversas entidades e na apreciao dos estudos de carcter
ambiental.
Eventual opinio ou interveno negativa de agentes locais.
Dificuldades de maios humanos na Administrao para tratamento
dos processos de licenciamento.
"Em 2001, a situao podia resumir-e a um impasse quase completo
no licenciamento das PCHs" (situao pouco diferente da actual).

Aspectos econmicos
Maiores alturas de queda so factor favorvel (menores
caudais para a mesma potncia, menores custos de
equipamento).
Frequentemente maiores alturas ocorrem em zonas menos
habitadas (consumo local, ligao rede).
Na Europa, a maior parte dos melhores locais (maiores
quedas) j esto aproveitados.
Muito longo perodo de vida (frequentemente 50 anos) com
pequenos custos de operao e manuteno. Investimentos nas
grandes hdricas em geral do Estado.
Mas a anlise econmica (investidores privados) baseia-se em
amortizaes em 10 - 20 anos.

Costs of installation of small

hydropower plants

Comparison: cost of installation of a large onshore

wind turbine (> 1MW): about 1.0 - 1.1 M/MW.
Note that lifespan of wind turbine (20-25 years?) is probably
shorter than lifespan of a hydro plant.

US$/kW

kW installed

Range of costs for small hydropower projects.

Small hydropower : specific costs of installed capacity

/kW

Head (m)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT - 1
The impact of the large hydropower plants is probably greater (afecting
larger areas) than any other power plants (not necessarily worse impact).
The impact from small plants (per unit power) is not necessarily smaller
than from large ones.
This impact is important during construction and during operation.
Do not forget that any renewable has environmental impact, namely
concerning construction/production phaes (energy and materials are
required).
The large hydro plants change the ecology over large areas.
Beneficial effects:
Replaces fossile-fuel power plants (reduce greenhouse gases & acid
rain).
Flood control (especially plants with large reservoir).
Irrigation.
Valued amenity and visual improvement.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT - 2
The most obvious impact of large hydro-electric dams is the flooding of
vast areas of land, much of it previously forested or used for agriculture.
Large plants required the relocation of many people (Aswan, Nile river:
80000; Kariba, Zambesi river: 60000; Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze river:
1.5 million).
In large reservoirs behind hydro dams, decaying vegetation, submerged
by flooding, may give off large quantities of greenhouse gases (methane).
Damming a river can alter the amount and quality of water in the river
downstream of the dam, as well as preventing fish from migrating
upstream. These impacts can be reduced by requiring minimum flows
downstream of a dam, and by creating fish ladders which allow fish to
move upstream past the dam.
Silt (sediments), normally carried downstream to the lower reaches of a
river, is trapped by a dam and deposited on the bed of the reservoir.
This silt can slowly fill up a reservoir, decreasing the amount of water which
can be stored and used for electrical generation. The river downstream of
the dam is also deprived of silt which fertilizes the river's flood-plain during
high water periods.

Basic bibliography (in addition to pdf files available at site of

Renewable Energy Resources):

Janet Ramage, Hydroelectricity, in: Renewable Energy (Godfrey

Boyle ed.), Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 147-194. ISBN 0-19926178-4.
M. Manuela Portela, Hydrology, in: Guidelines for Design of Small
Hydroplants (Helena Ramos, ed.), 2000, p. 21-38. ISBN 972-96346-4-5
(available at CEHIDRO, IST).