CHAPTER

7
GENETICS
(Part 1)

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CONTENT
DNA Replication

1.
i.

Models of DNA Replication

ii.

DNA Replication Process

2.

Genetic code and its features

3.

Protein synthesis: Transcription and

Translation
i.

Transcription in prokaryotes and

eukaryotes

ii.

Translation Initiation, Elongation and

Termination steps.

PART
1

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CONTENT
4.

Gene Regulation and expression

5.

Mendelian genetics
i.

Monohybrid inheritance

ii.

Dihybrid inheritance

iii.

Extension of Mendelian Genetics

Population Genetics

6.
i.

Gene population

ii.

Hardy-Weinbergs Principle

iii.

Factor that change the frequency in population

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(1) LEARNING OBJECTIVES

i.

Explain about the DNA replication process.

ii.

Summarize how DNA replicates (semiconservative) by citing the

Meselson and Stahls experiment.

iii.

Outline the flow of genetic information process in cells, from

DNA RNA Proteins via looking at the transcription and
translation process.

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(2) LEARNING OBJECTIVES

iv.

Explain the concept of operon and gene regulation.

v.

Describe the components of lac operon and their functions in E.

coli.

vi.

Describe the mechanism of the operon in the absence and

presence of lactose.

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(3) LEARNING OBJECTIVES

vii.

Define important terms in genetics.

viii.

Describe Mendel Principles of Segregation and Independent

Assortment.

ix.

Explain population genetics, gene pool, allele frequencies and

genetic equilibrium.

x.

State and explain five assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg Law fro

genetic equilibrium.

xi.

Calculate allele and genotype frequencies.

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1. DNA REPLICATION:
DNA & RNA
STRUCTURE

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Nucleic Acid Structure

Both DNA & RNA are macromolecules composed of smaller building

blocks.

1.

There are several levels of complexity needed to be considered:

Nucleotides forms the repeating structural unit of nucleic
acids.

2.

Nucleotides are linked together in a linear manner to form a strand

of DNA or RNA. polynucleotides

3.

2 strands of DNA, interact with each other to form a double helix.

4.

The 3-dimensional structure of DNA results from the folding &

bending of the double helix.

Nucleotides

Single strand

Double helix

3-dimensional
structure
Fig:
Fig: Levels
Levels of
of
nucleic
nucleic acid
acid

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Nucleotides: The Building Blocks of Nucleic

Acid

The nucleotide is the repeating structural unit of DNA &

RNA.

3 components of a nucleotide:

A phosphate group

A pentose sugar

A nitrogenous base

There are 2 types of pentose sugars:

1.

Ribose found in RNA

2.

Deoxyribose found in DNA

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Nucleotides: The Building Blocks of Nucleic

Acid

Each nucleotide consists of 1 of the 5 types of nitrogenous bases.

2 bases are derived from double-ringed purine,

3 bases are derived from single-ringed pyrimidine.

Purine bases Double ringed carbon-nitrogen compound

Adenine (A)

Guanine (G)

Pyrimidine bases Single ringed carbon-nitrogen compound

Thymine (T)

Cytosine (C)

Uracil (U)

Fig: The components of nucleotides

12

Fig: The structure of nucleotides in (a) DNA and (b) RNA

a)
a)

Repeating
Repeating unit
unit of
of

deoxyribonucleic
deoxyribonucleic acid
acid (DNA)
(DNA)

DNA contains:
deoxyribose as its sugar
the bases A, T, G, C

b)
b) Repeating
Repeating unit
unit of
of ribonucleic
ribonucleic
acid
acid (RNA)
(RNA)

o RNA contains:
ribose as its sugar
The bases A, U, G, C

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Nucleotides are linked together to form a

strand

Nucleotides are covalently attached to each other in

a linear manner to form a strand of DNA or RNA.

1.

Structural features of DNA strand:

Phosphodiester linkage

the bond between a phosphate group on 1

nucleotide & the sugar molecule on the
adjacent nucleotide.

2.

The phosphates & the sugar molecules (sugarphosphate backbone) form the backbone of
DNA or RNA strand.

3.

Fig: Nucleotide polymer

The backbone is negatively charged due to a

negative charge on each phosphate.

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The Molecular Structure of the DNA

Double Helix

In a DNA double helix, 2 DNA strands are twisted together

around a common axis.

There are 10 base pairs within a complete twist.

This double-stranded structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonding

between the base pairs.

The AT/GC rule (a.k.a. Chargaffs rule) shows that,

DNA from many organisms contains equal amounts of A & T,

and equal amounts of G & C.

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The Molecular Structure of the DNA

Double Helix

There are:

3 hydrogen bonds between G & C,

2 hydrogen bonds between A & T.

For this reason, DNA sequences that have a high proportion of G &
C tend to form more stable double-stranded structures.

The AT/GC rules implies that:

base sequences within 2 DNA strands are complementary to each

other.

Example:

The sequence of 1st strand

: 5-ATGGCGGATTT-3

The sequence of the opposite strand : 3-TACCGCCTAAA-5

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The Molecular Structure of the DNA

Double Helix

The polynucleotide has directionality from:

5 (phosphate group) end to 3 (-OH group)

end.

When going from the top of double-stranded DNA:

The direction of the LEFT strand is: 5 3

The direction of the RIGHT strand is: 3 5

Both strands are in antiparallel direction.

i.e the 2 DNA strands are in opposite orientation.

An antiparallel structure was initially proposed in

the models of Watson & Crick.

The double helix

Watson & Crick model
of DNA

The double helix model of a DNA molecule was

discovered by Watson & Crick in 1953.

The diameter of DNA helix is 20 .

One
nucleotid
The distance between base pairs is
e 0.34
nm (34
)
3.4 .

One
complete
turn 3.4 nm
(34 )

A complete turn (360o) of the DNA helix

consists of 10 base pairs with a distance of 34

The 2 strands of DNA form a right-handed double

helix.

2 nm (20
)

The bases in opposite strands hydrogen bond

according to the AT/GC rule.

The 2 strands are antiparallel with regard to their

5 to 3 directionality.

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RNA STRUCTURE

The basic components of RNA are the same with DNA except for
two major differences:
i.

The pyrimidine base uracil replace thymine

ii.

Ribose replace deoxyribose

Adenine & Uracil form a base pair formed by 2 hydrogen bonds.

RNA exist as a single strand

RNA is important in the production of proteins in living

organisms.

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RNA STRUCTURE

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RNA STRUCTURE

4 types of RNA:

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Small nuclear RNA (snRNA)

All 4 types of RNA are made based on

the genetic information from the different parts of the DNA

inside the nucleus with the help of specific enzymes.

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RNA STRUCTURE

mRNA

A linear sequence of mRNA that copy the information contained in

DNA (genes) to be translated in the translation process to make protein.

travels to the ribosomes (protein making factories)

rRNA

is a component of the ribosomes, the protein synthetic factories in the

cell

tRNA
brings amino acids (raw materials) to the protein factories (ribosome)
that makes different proteins.

Different tRNA molecules for each of the different amino acids.

snRNA

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Polypeptide chain
rRNA + protein

Large subunit
ribosome

small subunit
Translation of proteins involves a mRNA, tRNA, ribosome, and
energy.

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1. DNA
REPLICATION:
Models of DNA
Replication

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DNA Replication

DNA replication

is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule.

In a cell, DNA replication must happen before cell division.

Prokaryotes

replicate their DNA throughout the interval between cell

divisions.

In eukaryotes,

timings are highly regulated and this occurs during the S phase
of the cell cycle, preceding mitosis or meiosis I.

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DNA Replication

When a cell copies a DNA molecule,

each strand serves as a template for ordering nucleotides into a

new complementary strand.

Nucleotides line up along the template strand,

according to the base-paring rules &are lined to form the new

strands.

Each of the 2 daughter molecules have

one old strand derived from the parent molecule; &

one newly synthesized strand.

This is called the SEMICONSERVATIVE MODEL.

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DNA Replication: SEMICONSERVATIVE

MODEL

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DNA Replication

There are 3 alternatives models of DNA replication.

a)

Conservative model

b)

Semiconservative model

c)

Dispersive model

In 1950s, Matthew Meselson & Franklin Stahl,

. Carry

out experiment that supported the

semiconservative model of DNA replication.

a)
a)
)
)

Conservative
Conservative model
model
The
The 2
2 parental
parental strands
strands reassociate
reassociate after
after
acting
acting as
as templates
templates for
for new
new strands,
strands,
Thus
Thus restoring
restoring the
the parental
parental
double
double helix.
helix.

b)
b)
)
)

Semiconservative
Semiconservative model
model
The
The

2
2 parental
parental strands
strands separate,
separate,
&
& each
each functions
functions as
as a
a template
template for
for
the
the synthesis
synthesis of
of new,
new,
complementary
complementary strand.
strand.

c)
c) Dispersive
Dispersive model
model
)
) Each
Each strand
strand of
of both
both daughter
daughter molecules
molecules
contains
contains a
a mixture
mixture of
of old
old &
& newly
newly
synthesized
synthesized DNA.
DNA.

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(1.) DNA
REPLICATION:
DNA Replication
Process

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DNA Replication: GETTING STARTED

The replication of DNA molecule

begins at origin of
replication,

i.e. short stretches of DNA

having specific sequence of
nucleotides.

Enzymes that initiate DNA

replication, recognize this
sequence & attach to the DNA
separating the 2 strands &
opening up a replication
bubble.

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DNA Replication: GETTING STARTED

Replication of DNA proceeds in

both directions,

until the entire molecule is

copied.

A eukaryotic chromosome,

have hundreds to few

thousands replication of
origins.

Multiple replication bubble form

& eventually fuse,

thus speeding up the copying

of very long DNA molecules.

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DNA Replication: GETTING STARTED

The E. coli chromosome (& many other bacterial chromosomes) is circular

& has a single origin.

Bacterial DNA replication is bidirectional since the chromosome is circular.

It begins from a central origin and proceeds around the chromosome.

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DNA Replication: GETTING STARTED

At each end of replication bubble, is a replication fork.

Replication fork a Y-shaped region where the parental

strands of DNA are being unwound.

Several kinds of proteins participate in the unwinding:

i.

Helicases

ii.

Single-strand binding proteins

iii.

Topoisomerase

iv.

Primase

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DNA Replication: GETTING STARTED

i.

Helicase

Enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks,

separating the 2 parental strands making them available as

template strands.

ii.

Single-strand binding proteins

Bind to unpaired DNA strands (just after the parental strand

separation), stabilizing them.

iii.

Topoisomerase

Helps relieve the strain ahead of the replication fork due to

the untwisting of double helix, by breaking, swiveling & rejoining
DNA strands.

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DNA Replication: GETTING STARTED

Start to
synthesiz
e new
DNA
strand

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DNA Replication: GETTING STARTED

During DNA synthesis, the initial nucleotide chain produced is a

short RNA chain called RNA primer.

iv.

RNA primer is synthesized by primase.

Primase

Synthesizes RNA primer, using the parental DNA as a template.

Primase start an RNA chain from a single RNA nucleotide,

adding RNA nucleotide 1 at a time.

The completed primer usually 5 10 nucleotides long.

The new DNA strand will start from the 3 end of the RNA
primer.

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DNA Replication: Synthesizing a New DNA

Strand

DNA polymerases,

catalyze the synthesis of new DNA, by adding

nucleotides to a preexisting chains.

2 major DNA polymerases are:

DNA polymerase III

i.

Uses parental DNA as a template to synthesize

new DNA strand by covalently adding

nucleotides to the 3 end of a pre-existing
DNA strand or RNA primer.
ii.

DNA polymerase I

Removes RNA nucleotides of primer from the

5end & replaces them with DNA nucleotides.
(U T)

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DNA Replication: ANTIPARALLEL

ELONGATION

The 2 DNA strands in a double helix are antiparallel,

The 2 new strands formed during DNA replication,

i.e. they are oriented in opposite directions to each other.

must also be antiparallel to their template strands.

DNA polymerases can add nucleotides only to the 3 end of

a primer or growing DNA strand,

& never to the 5 end.

Thus, a new DNA strand can elongate only in the 5 3

direction.

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DNA Replication: ANTIPARALLEL

ELONGATION

The synthesis of new DNA molecules during DNA replication involves:

The synthesis of the leading strands

i.

Occurs from the Origin of replication towards the replication fork.

The synthesis of lagging strands

2.

Occurs away form replication fork towards Origin of replication.

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1. Synthesis of Leading Strand

Along 1 template strand, starting at

origin of replication (that has a 3 end )

Primase synthesized a short RNA

primer.

This enables the DNA polymerase III to

synthesize a complementary strand
continuously,

by elongating the new DNA strand

in the 5 3 direction towards
replication fork.

DNA pol III settles in the replication fork

on the template strand & continuously
adds nucleotides to the new

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1. Synthesis of Leading Strand

The DNA strand made by this

mechanism is called the leading
strand.

Only 1 primer is required for

DNA pol III to synthesize the
leading strand.

DNA pol I Then replaces the

RNA primer with DNA
nucleotides.

1.
1. After
After RNA
RNA primer
primer is
is
made,
made,

DNA
DNA pol
pol III
III
starts
starts
to
to synthesize
synthesize the
the
leading
leading strand.
strand.

2.
2. Leading
Leading strand
strand is
is
elongated
elongated continuously
continuously in
in
the
the 5
5
3
3 direction,
direction, as
as
the
the fork
fork progresses.
progresses.

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2. Synthesis of Lagging Strand

To elongate the other new DNA strand in the 5 3 direction,

DNA pol III elongates this DNA strand in the direction away
from the replication fork.

The lagging strand is synthesize discontinuously,

This DNA strand is called the lagging strand.

as a series of segments.

These segments of the lagging strands are called Okazaki

fragments.

Each Okazaki fragment must be primed separately.

This requires primase.

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2. Synthesis of Lagging Strand

DNA

pol I then replaces the RNA nucleotides of

the primers with DNA nucleotides.

DNA

ligase joins the Okazaki fragments to

form the lagging strand Into continuous DNA

strand.

Overall
Overall Direction
Direction of
of replication
replication

2.
2. SSB
SSB Proteins
Proteins
stabilise
stabilise the
the unwound
unwound
parental
parental DNA
DNA
1.
1. Helicase
Helicase
unwinds
unwinds parental
parental
double
helix
double helix

3.
3. The
The leading
leading strand
strand is
is synthesized
synthesized
continually
in
the
5

3
continually in the 5 3 direction
direction by
by DNA
DNA pol
pol
III
III
7.
7. DNA
DNA ligase
ligase
joins
joins the
the Okazaki
Okazaki
fragments.
fragments.
6.
6. DNA
DNA pol
pol II
replaces
replaces the
the RNA
RNA primer
primer with
with
DNA.
DNA.
4.
4. The
The lagging
lagging strand
strand is
is
synthesized
discontinuously
synthesized discontinuously (5
(5

3)
3)

5.
5. Primase
Primase synthesizes
synthesizes RNA
RNA
primer,
which
is
extended
primer, which is extended by
by DNA
DNA
pol
III
to
form
an
Okazaki
pol III to form an Okazaki
fragment.
fragment.

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2. Synthesis of Lagging Strand

http://
www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/animations/dna_r
eplication/index.html

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(2.) GENETIC
CODE AND ITS
FEATURES

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From Gene to Protein

The information content in DNA (the genetic

material),

is in the form of specific nucleotides sequences

along the DNA strands.

The DNA inherited by an organism,

leads to specific traits by dictating the synthesis

of proteins.

Proteins are the links between genotype &

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From Gene to Protein

Genes provide the instructions for making specific proteins.

Examples:

Enzymes

Structural proteins e.g. keratin in hair

Hormone e.g. insulin

Globular protein e.g. hemoglobin

BUT a gene DOES NOT built a protein directly.

RNA - is the bridge between DNA & protein synthesis.

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From Gene to Protein

To

get from DNA (sequences of

nucleotides) to proteins (sequences of

amino acids),
requires

2 major stages:

1. Transcription

2. Translation

(DNA RNA)

(RNA Protein)

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From Gene to Protein:

TRANSCRIPTION

The synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA

Both nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) use the same language i.e.
Nucleotides

.: The information from DNA is transcribed or copied into RNA

form.

DNA provides a template for assembling a sequence of RNA

nucleotides.

This produces messenger RNA (mRNA)

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From Gene to Protein:

TRANSCRIPTION

mRNA:

is a transcript of the genes protein-building

instructions (from the DNA)

carries a genetic message from the DNA to

ribosomes (the protein-synthesizing machinery of the
cell).

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From Gene to Protein:

TRANSLATION

The synthesis of a polypeptide under the direction

of mRNA.

The base sequence of an mRNA molecule is translated

into the amino acid of a polypeptide.

Ribosomes,

the site of translation

facilitate the orderly linking of amino acids into

polypeptide chains.

Transcription
Transcription &
& Translation
Translation
in
in Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic cell
cell

The inherited information flows from

DNA RNA Protein.

Transcription:

Occurs in the nucleus.

A gene provides the instruction for

synthesizing mRNA.

RNA Processing:

The original RNA transcript (primary

transcript or pre-mRNA) is processed
before leaving the nucleus as functional
mRNA.

Translation:

The information encoded in mRNA determines

the sequence of amino acids to form a
specific polypeptide.

Occurs at ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

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The Genetic Code: Nucleotide

Triplets

The flow of information from gene to protein is based on a triplet code.

Triplets of nucleotides bases can code for all the 20 amino acids.

An mRNA molecule:

Is complementary to its DNA template (carries genes)

because RNA bases are assemble on the template according to the basepairing rules.

Codons:

are the mRNA base triplets.

Example: UGG is the codon for amino acid tryptophan (Trp)

Can also be use for the complementary DNA base triplet.

Example: DNA codon: ACC corresponding RNA codon: UGG

The
The Dictionary
Dictionary of
of The
The Genetic
Genetic Code:
Code: Nucleotide
Nucleotide Triplets
Triplets &
& Its
Its
Amino
Amino Acids
Acids

The Triplet Code

For each gene,

1 DNA strand functions as a

template for transcription.

Follows the base-pairing

rules.

During translation, the mRNA is

read,

as a sequence of base triplets

codons,

in the 5 3 direction

Each codon specifies an amino

acid to be added to the growing
polypeptide chain.

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(3.) Protein synthesis:

Transcription and
Translation
TRANSCRIPTION

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TRANSCRIPTION OF RNA
Overview of transcription

Information in DNA is transcribed (copied) to RNA molecule (mRNA

molecule).

DNA act as a template,

whereby a mRNA is transcribed complementary to the DNA template

strand.

Like DNA replication, complementary fragments (mRNA) are generated in

the 5' 3' direction.

Transcription leads to the translation of the genetic code (via the mRNA
intermediate) into a functional peptide or protein.

RNA polymerase catalyzes the reaction

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The Synthesis & Processing of RNA:

TRANSCRIPTION OF RNA

Stages of transcription
INITIATION

1.

RNA polymerase binds to a promoter, where the helix

unwinds and transcription starts
ELONGATION

2.

RNA nucleotides are added to the chain

TERMINATION

3.

RNA polymerase reaches a terminator sequence and

detaches from the template

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The Synthesis & Processing of RNA:

TRANSCRIPTION OF RNA
1.

Promoter

The DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches

& initiates transcription.

2.

Terminator

The DNA sequence that signals the end of

termination.

3.

Transcription unit

The stretch of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA

molecule.

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Stages of RNA Transcription : (1.)

INITIATION

The promoter of a gene,

serves as a binding site for

RNA polymerase

determines where
transcription start

determines which of the 2 DNA

strands is used as the
template.

TATA box

A crucial promoter DNA

sequence.

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Stages of RNA Transcription : (1.)

INITIATION

RNA polymerase binds to the DNA at a specialized

sequence called a promoter.

RNA polymerase unwinds DNA double helix and

becomes single stranded.

RNA polymerase starts to transcribes the DNA with the

addition of free RNA nucleotides in the 5 3 direction.

(RNA polymerase add RNA nucleotides to the 3 end)

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Stages of RNA Transcription : (1.)

INITIATION

RNA Polymerase

Separates the 2 DNA

strands apart.

add RNA nucleotides to

the 3 end of the growing
RNA polymer

according to the basepairing rules along the

DNA template.

.: RNA molecule
elongates in 5 3
direction.

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Stages of RNA Transcription : (2.)

ELONGATION

RNA polymerase continues to moves along the DNA to unwind the

double helix,

The enzyme,

add nucleotides to the 3 end of the growing RNA molecule, as

it moves along the double helix.

Then the DNA double helix reforms & the new RNA molecule
peels away from its DNA template.

Transcription progresses at a rate of ~ 60 nucleotides per second in

eukaryotes.

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Stages of RNA Transcription : (3.)

TERMINATION

Transcription proceeds until after the RNA polymerase

transcribes a terminator sequence in the DNA.

Terminator sequence signals the end of the transcription

unit.

The transcribed terminator (an RNA sequence)

function as the actual termination signal.

The RNA transcript is released.

The RNA polymerase detaches from the DNA.

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MODIFYING RNA AFTER TRANSCRIPTION

Enzymes in the eukaryotic nucleus modify premRNA,

before the genetic message are transported to the

cytoplasm.

RNA processing involves:

1.

Alteration of mRNA ends

2.

Split genes & RNA splicing

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1. ALTERATION OF MRNA ENDS

Each end of a pre-mRNA molecule is modified.

A.

The 5 end of pre-mRNA

The 5 end is capped off with 5 cap.

5 cap is a modified guanosine triphosphate.

Function of 5 cap:

Helps protect the mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic

enzyme.

After the mRNA reaches cytoplasm, there it functions as

attach here sign for ribosomes.

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1. Alteration of mRNA ends

B.

The 3 end of pre-mRNA

. At

the 3 end, an enzyme makes a Poly (A) tail.

. Poly

(A) tail:

Consists of ~ 50 250 adenine nucleotide.

Inhibit degradation of RNA.

Facilitate the export of mRNA from the nucleus.

Helps ribosomes attach to it.

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RNA processing:
Addition of the 5 cap & Poly (A) tail
Termination
signal

Leade
r

Trailer

The leader, trailer & the poly (A) tail are not translated.

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2. SPLIT GENES & RNA SPLICING

DNA molecule contains non-coding sequences (the DNA regions

that are not translated), that are interspaced between
coding segment of the gene (DNA nucleotides sequence that
codes for a polypeptide).

Thus the non-coding region can also be found between

coding segment of the pre-mRNA.

RNA splicing:

Is the removal of a large portion of the pre-mRNA molecule

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2. Split Genes & RNA Splicing

Introns (intervening sequences):

The non-coding segments of nucleic acid,

Located between coding regions.

Exon:

The coding segments,

Are expressed by being translated into amino acid

sequences.

The term intron & exon are used for both DNA & RNA.

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2. Split Genes & RNA Splicing

RNA polymerase transcribed both introns & exons from

DNA to make pre-mRNA.

Introns are cut out from the molecule.

Exons are joined together to form an mRNA molecule

with continuous coding sequence processed called
RNA SPLICING.

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RNA Processing: RNA splicing

During RNA processing,

the introns are excised,

the exons are spliced together (RNA splicing) to form a continuous

protein-coding message.

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(3.) Protein synthesis:

Transcription and
Translation
TRANSLATION

THE SYNTHESIS OF
PROTEINS

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Translation: The RNA directed synthesis of a polypeptide

The structure & function of transfer RNA

Ribosomes

Building a Polypeptide

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Translation

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STRUCTURE OF TRNA

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Function to transfer amino acid from the cytoplasms

amino acid pool to a ribosome.

Has 2 ends:

1 end carries a specific amino acid.

Another end is an anticodon (a nucleotide triplet)

ANTICODON base-pairs with a complementary

codon on mRNA.

The ribosome adds each amino acid brought to it by tRNA to the

growing end of a polypeptide chain.

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Structure of tRNA

tRNA:

are transcribed from DNA templates.

Made in the nucleus.

Travels to cytoplasm where translation

occurs.

Consists of a single RNA strand (~80

nucleotides long)

Looks like a clove leaf.

The anticodon triplet is unique to each

tRNA type.

Each tRNA molecule can be used

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Structure of tRNA

An amino acid attachment

site allows each tRNA to
carry a specific amino acid

Anticodons are written in

3 5,

to align properly with

mRNAs codon (5 3
direction).

Example:

Anticodon

: 3-AAG-

mRNA codon : 5-UUC-3

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RIBOSOMES

Made up of 2 subunits Large & small subunits.

Ribosomal subunits are

constructed of proteins & ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

made in the nucleolus

The ribosomal subunits are exported via nuclear pores to the

cytoplasm.

In the cytoplasm, the large & small subunits joins to form a functional
ribosomes.

Most cells contains thousands of ribosomes.

.: rRNA is the most abundant type of RNA.

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Ribosomes structure

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RIBOSOMES
Ribosome has

a binding site for mRNA

3 binding site for tRNA:

The A site (Aminoacyl-tRNA site)

1.

Holds the tRNA carrying amino acid to be added to the chain.

The P site (Peptidyl-tRNA site)

2.

Holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.

3.

The E site (Exit site)

Discharged tRNA leaves ribosome from the E site.

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Ribosomes structure

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BUILDING A POLYPEPTIDE
Translation

the synthesis of a polypeptide

chain.

stages of translation:

1.

Initiation

2.

Elongation

3.

Termination

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1. INITIATION

This stage brings together:

mRNA

A tRNA bearing the 1st amino acid of the polypeptide

The 2 subunits of a ribosome.

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1. INITIATION
The process:
1.

A small ribosomal subunit binds:

mRNA & a special initiator tRNA.

The initiation codon, AUG (on mRNA),

Signals the start of translation.

The initiator tRNA (carries Methionine) attaches to the

initiation codon.

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1. INITIATION

Small ribosomal subunit

binds to mRNA
molecule.

Anticodon of initiator
tRNA, UAC basepairs with the start
codon, AUG (mRNA).

The tRNA carries

methionine (Met).

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1. INITIATION
2.

Then a large ribosomal subunit is attached to produce a

translation initiation complex.

Consists of:

Small & large subunit

mRNA

Initiator tRNA

3.

The initiator tRNA sits in the P site.

4.

The vacant A site is ready for the next aminoacyl tRNA.

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1. INITIATION

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2. ELONGATION

Amino acids are added 1 by 1 to the preceding amino acid.

3-step cycle:
1.

Codon recognition

2.

Peptide bond formation

3.

Translocation

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2. ELONGATION: (1) Codon

Recognition
The

mRNA codon in the A site forms H bonds

with the anticodon of an incoming aminoacyl

tRNA.

i.e.: Anticodon of an incoming tRNA will

complement with the codon on mRNA.

This tRNA enters into the A site.

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2. ELONGATION:
(2) Peptide bond formation

An rRNA molecule of the large ribosomal subunit,

Function as a ribozyme,

Catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond that joins the:

Polypeptide extending from the P site to the new amino

acid in the A site.

(The polypeptide separates from the tRNA to which it was

attached ( which is in the P site) & binds to the amino acid of
the tRNA in the A site.)

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2. ELONGATION:
(3) Translocation

The tRNA (with its attached polypeptide) in the A site,

is translocated to the P site, taking the mRNA along with it.

This brings the next codon to be translated into the A site.

The previous tRNA that was in the P site is moved to the E site & released from
the ribosome.

The mRNA moves through the ribosome in 1 direction: 5 3 direction (on the
mRNA)

The ribosome & the mRNA move relative to each other,

Unidirectionally codon by codon.

1. Codon
recognitio
n

3.

Translocation
2.

Peptide
bond
formation

The Elongation Cycle

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3. TERMINATION

1.

The final stage of transcription.

Elongation continues until:

A stop codon in the mRNA reaches the A site of

ribosome.

3 Stop codon:

UAA, UAG & UGA

Do not code for amino acid.

Act as signal to stop translation.

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3. TERMINATION
2.

Release factor

A protein

Binds directly to the stop codon in the A site.

Hydrolyzes the bond between the tRNA (in the P site) &
the last amino acid of the completed polypeptide chain.

3.

The polypeptide is released.

The 2 ribosomal subunit & the other components of

the translation assembly DISSOCIATE!!

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3. TERMINATION

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REVIEW
1.

What does translation represent:

2.

Where does the information for producing a protein originate:

3.

DNA or RNA?

Which one has a linear sequence of codons:

4.

DNA RNA or RNA protein?

rRNA, mRNA, or tRNA?

Which one directly influences the phenotype:

DNA, RNA, or protein?

The end of Part 1!!