CHAPTER 1 (b)

FORCES ON MATERIAL

Learning Outcome
At the end of this lecture, student should be able to;
Understand Hookes Law
Define modulus of elasticity or Young Modulus
Understand stress strain curve
Define strain energy, factor of safety, Poissons

ratio, modulus of rigidity

Understand tensile test
Define shear stress (single and double)
Solve problems related to above learning outcomes

What is Hookes Law?

Hookes Law states that , the elongation

(strain) is proportional to the force (stress) at

any elastic material as long as the elastic limit
is not exceeded.
The material returns to its original shape and
size after the force is removed.

 The Hookes law can be defined as,

Or

The constant, E in Hookes Law is knows as

modulus of elasticity or Young Modulus.

Young modulus is a measure of the stiffness of
an elastic material and is a quantity used to
characterize materials. (The higher E value, the
higher its strength)
Unit is in N/m2 @ Pa.

Several Engineering
Material
Material
Steel

Young Modulus,
E (GPa)
200 - 220

Aluminum

60 - 80

Copper

90 - 110

Bronze

100 - 125

Wood

10

Tensile Test
Tensile test test in which sample is subjected

to tension force until failure.

The results from the test are commonly used to
select a material for an application, for quality
control and to predict how a material will react
under tensional forces.
Properties that can be measured - ultimate
tensile strength, maximum elongation,
reduction in area, yield strength, young modulus
and strain hardening characteristics. (movie)

Necking Phenomenon

Tensile Test Result

a) Graph Gradient (obtained from graph)

b) Young Modulus

Tensile Test Result

Stress-Strain Curve

Stress-Strain Curve Explanation

a) Proportional Limit
Stress is proportional to strain (Hookes Law ) which indicated by a
straight line.
b) Elastic Zone
The specimen will regain its original shape and size when the load
is removed.
c) Plastic Zone
Opposite to elastic zone, where the specimen cant regain its
original shape and size when the load is removed. Any deformation
after this zone is said to experience strain hardening.

Ultimate tensile strength

Necking
Breaking point
Proportional limit
Yield point

d) Yield Point
- Point at which permanent deformation of
specimen begins to take place. This is a point on
the stress-strain curve at which the Hookes Law is
no longer obeyed @ proportional limit is off.
e) Ultimate stress / ultimate strength
- The maximum stress that a specimen can
withstand while being pulled.
f) Breaking Point
- After the specimen reach the ultimate stress, a
necking phenomenon is formed where the crosssectional area of specimen decreased. Further
stress will result in failure/rupture to the specimen.

Strain-Stress Graph
(Comparison with different
material)

 Strain Energy
- Work that must be done to produce a strain.
- Unit in Nm or Joule (J)

or
Where;
U = strain energy
P = load / force
L = original length
A = cross sectional area
E = Young Modulus

V = AL

 Poissons Ratio
- When a material is stretched, its cross-

sectional area changes as well as it length in

the direction of stretching force.

- X axis,

x =

Y axis, y =

Poissons ratio can be expressed as;

Where;
= poissons ratio , no unit
y = tranverse or lateral strain
x = longitudinal or axial strain
Poissons ratio has NO unit.

 Factor of Safety
- Also known as safety factor is the ratio between ultimate tensile stress to the

working stress.
- SF has No unit.

Where;
SF Safety factor
u - Ultimate stress

w -

Working stress

Modulus of Rigidity

- The ratio between shear stress to the shear

strain.
- It is denoted by G, C or N.
- Unit in N/m2 or Pa

or

 Shear Stress
- Ratio between shear load to the shear area.
- Unit in N/m2 or Pa.

or

Exercise
1. A round bar of mild steel 5.4 m long and 38 mm

diameter is lengthened by 1.66 mm under a load of 70

KN. Find the strain, stress and Young modulus.
2. A bar of 30 mm diameter is subjected to a force of 58.8
KN. The measured extension on a gauge length of 200
mm is 0.09 mm and the change in diameter is 0.0029
mm. Calculate the Poissons ratio.
3. A bar with a length of 100 mm and diameter of 10 mm
is applied to 50 KN load. Calculate the strain energy.
(Given E= 70 GPa)
4. A steel with a diameter 20 mm is subjected to tensile
force of 100 KN. Find the factor of safety if the ultimate
stress is
200 MPa.