LECTURE 3

Theory before Research

According to one major school of thought, theory should come first , to
be followed by research ; this often referred to as the theory-then
research strategy.
The theory-then research strategy involves the following five steps.
1. Construct an explicit theory or model.
2. Select a proposition derived from the theory or model for empirical
investigation.
3. Design a research project to test the proposition.
4. If the proposition derived from the theory is rejected by empirical
data, make change in the theory or the research project.
5. If the proposition is not rejected, select other proposition for testing or

Research before Theory

Robert Merton, a proponent of the research-then theory strategy
argued that research plays an active role; it performs at least for major
function which help shape the development of theory. It initiates,
reformulate, deflects and clarifies theory.
The research-then-theory strategy consist of the followings.
1. Investigate a phenomena and delineate its attribute.
2. Measure the attribute in a variety of situations.
3. Analyze the resulting data to determine if there are systematic
patterns of variations.

Clearly, both strategies regard theory as a manifestation of scientific

progress. The dilemma is over the place of theory in the research
process. The social science have progressed in-spite of this controversy
and scientific undertakings are being pursued under both strategies. In
fact, theory and research interact continuously.

LECTURE 4

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

STEP 1 TO 3

Objectives of the Topic

To identify the steps in the research process.
To identify problem areas that are likely to be studied in
organizations.
To discuss how problem areas can be identified in the work setting.
To state research problems clearly and precisely.
To develop relevant and comprehensive bibliography for any
organization research area.
To write a literature review on any given topic, documenting the
reference in the prescribed manner.
To apply all you have learned to a group project that might be
assigned to you.

The Research Process for Applied and Basic Research

Observation

Theoretical
Framework
Scientific

Problem
definition

Preliminary
Data
Gathering

Variables
Identification

Generation of
Hypothesis

Research
Design

Data
Collection,anal
ysis &
interpretation

Deduction

Broad Problem Area

The broad problem area refers to the entire situation where one sees a
possible need for research and problem solving.
Examples of broad problem areas that a manager could observe in the
workplace as follows.
1. Training programmes are perhaps are not as effective as were
anticipated.
2. The sale volume of a product is not picking up.
3. Minority groups are not making career progress in organizations.
4. The balancing of accounting ledgers is becoming a continuing
concern.

5. The newly installed information system is not being used by the

managers for whom it was primarily designed.
6. The introduction of flexible work hours has created more problems
has it has solved in many companies.
7. The management of complex, multi-departmental projects is getting
out of hand in a firm.
The broad problem area would be narrowed down to specific issues for
investigation after some preliminary data are gathered by the researcher.
This may take the form of interviews and library research.

Preliminary Data Collection

Nature of data to be collected
The nature of information that would be needed by the researcher for the
purpose could be classified under three headings.
1. Background information of the organizations (secondary data)
2. Managerial philosophy, company policies, and other structural
aspects
3. Perception, attitudes, and behavioral response of the organizational
member and client systems (if applicable) - primary data.

Background Information on the Organization

The origin and history of the company - when it was started, rate of
growth, ownership and control and so on.
Size, in terms of employees, or assets or both.
Charter - purpose and ideology
Location - regional, national or other.

Resource - human and other.

Interdependent relationships with other institutions and the external

environment, financial position during the last five to ten years and
other financial data.

Information on Management Philosophy and Structural Factors

Roles and positions in the organization and number of employees at
each job level.
Extent of specialization.
Communication channels.
Control systems.
Coordination and span of control.
Reward systems.
Workflow systems and the like.

Perception, Attitudes, and Behavioral Responses

Nature of work.
Workflow interdependence.
Superiors in the organization.
Participation in decision making.
Client systems.
Co-workers

 Rewards provided by the organization such as pay and fringe benefits.

Opportunities for advancement in the organization.
Family environment and relationship.
Involvement in community, civic, and other social groups.
Views on taking time off the job.

Literature Survey
- Literature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of
the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in
the areas of specific interest to the researcher.
- The library is a rich storage base for secondary data, and researchers
spend several weeks, and sometimes months, going through books,
journals, newspapers, magazines, conference proceedings, doctoral
dissertations, master's thesis, several government publications and
financial marketing and other reports.

Reasons for Literature Survey

A good literature surveys ensures that:
Important variables that are likely to influence the problem are not left
out of the study.
Literature survey helps the development of theoretical framework and
hypotheses for testing.
Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are
enhanced.
The problem statement can be made with greater precision and clarity.
One does not run the risk of reinvesting the wheel that is, wasting
efforts on trying to rediscover something that is already known.
The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific community as
relevant and of significance.

Conducting the Literature Survey

It can be conducted in three steps.
1. Identifying the relevant sources.
2. Extracting the relevant information.
3. Writing up the literature survey
Identification of the Relevant Sources
Basically there are three forms of text database:
1. Bibliographic database: It displays only the bibliographic citations i.e., the name of the author, the article, source of publication, year,
volume, and page numbers.

2. Abstract database: it provides, in addition, an abstract or summary of

the article.
3. Full-text database: it also provides a full text of the article. Thus,
entire articles can be retrieved on-line, if necessary.
Bibliographical Indexes: It list the articles published in periodicals,
newspapers, books and so on are important sources of information easily
accessible to the researcher.
Extracting the relevant information
The following information may be extracted form the article:
1. Problem
2. Variables

3. Sample
4. Data collection
5. Data analysis
6. Results
7. Conclusion
8. Any other information/comments

Writing up the Literature Review

The documentation of the relevant studies citing the author and the year
of the study is called literature review or literature survey.
The literature survey is a clear and logical presentation of the research
work done thus for in the area of investigation.
The purpose of literature survey is to identify and highlight the
important variables, and to document the significant findings from
earlier research that will serve as the foundation on which the subsequent
theoretical framework for the current investigation can based and the
hypothesis developed.

Problem Definition
Problem is defined as any situation where a gap exists between the actual
and the desired ideal state.
Examples of well defined problems
1. To what extent do the structure of the organization and type of
information systems installed account for the variance in the
perceived effectiveness of managerial decisions?
2. What is the influence of information on price and quality on consumer
evaluation of competing brands?
3. Does the income statement in the balance sheet elicit the same kinds
of
reader reactions toward the company as the cash flow statement?

4. Is the effect of participative budgeting on performance moderated by

the control system?
5. Does better automation lead to greater asset investment for dollar of
output?
6. Does international expansion result in an increase in the firms value.
7. What are the effects of downsizing on the long range growth patterns
of companies?
9. What are the components of quality of life?

Practice Project
Do the project assigned below, following the step-by-step process
delineated therein:
1. Compile a bibliography on any one of the following topics, or any
topic of interest to you from a business perspective: (a) day care (b)
product development (C) information systems (d) manufacturing
technology (e) assessment centers (f) transfer pricing.
2. From this bibliography, select ten references that include books,
periodicals, and newspaper items.
3. Based on these ten articles, write a literature review using different
forms.
4. Formulate a problem statement.