Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics is the science of the mechanics of liquids

and gases and are based on some fundamental principles
that are also employed for solid mechanics
Fluid mechanics may be divided into three main branches,
namely
Fluid at rest
Fluid kinematics
Fluid dynamics
In any of the said branches, the behavior of the fluid has
to be expressed mathematically with the help of its
various properties.

Why study Fluid Mechanics?

Fluid mechanics is highly relevant to our daily life.
We live in the world full of fluids!
Fluid mechanics covers many areas such as
meteorology, oceanography, aerodynamics, biomechanics,
hydraulics, mechanical engineering, civil engineering,
naval architecture engineering, and etc.
It does not only explain scientific phenomena but
also leads industrial applications.

Definition of Fluid
A fluid may be defined as a substance that can flow
or can take the shape of the container in which it is kept or
even a gas and liquid as a laymans languages.
But critical observations differ, as these definitions
do not distinguish between the character/behavior of a solid
and a fluid subjected to different forces applied on them.
The difference between a solid and a fluid, in general, is
quite clear.

What is a Fluid?
The main difference between fluid and solid is their
behavior when shear forces acting on them. A certain
amount of displacement is found when a shear force is
applied to a solid element. The displacement disappears as
the shear force is released from the solid element. A fluid
deforms continuously under the application of a shear
force. Liquids and gases are both regarded as fluids.

Approaches to study Fluid Mechanics

Analytical Methods
Experiments
Computations
Analytical Methods
Using advanced mathematics, we can solve
governing equations of fluid motions and obtained
specific solutions for various flow problems. For
example: pipe flows.

Experimental Fluid Mechanics

This approach utilities facilities to measure considered
flow fields or uses various visualization methods to visualize
flow pattern. For example: LDA (Laser Doppler
Anemometer), hot wire, wind-tunnel test.
Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
For most of flow problems, we cannot obtain an analytical
solution. Hence, we can adopt numerical methods to solve
governing equations. On the other hands costs of experiments
become very expensive. Numerical solutions provides an
alternative approach to observe flow fields without built-up a
real flow field.

For example: finite volumes methods, finite elements

method.
History of fluid Mechanics
Archmides (207-212 B. C.): buoyance theory.
Leonnado da Vinci (1452-1519): He described wave
motions, hydraulic jump, jet and vortex motion.
Torricelli (1608-1647): He is well known for measuring
atmospheric pressure.

 Newton (1643-1727): He explained his famous second

law in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
This is one of main laws governing fluid motions. He also
provided the idea of linear viscosity describing the
relationship
Bernoulli (1700-1782): Bernoulli equation.
Euler (1707-1783): Euler equation.
Reynolds (1842-1919): Pipe flows, Reynolds stress,
turbulence theory.
Prandtl (1875-1953): Boundary layer theory.

Fluid as a continuum
The concept of a continuum is the basis of classic
fluid mechanics. The continuum assumption is valid in
treating the behavior of fluids under normal conditions.
However, it breaks down whenever the mean free path of the
magnitude as the smallest characteristic dimension of the
problem. In a problem such as rare field gas flow (e.g. as
encountered in flights into the upper reaches of the
atmosphere), we must abandon the concept of a continuum
in favor of the microscopic and statistical point of view.

As a consequence of the continuum, each fluid

property is assumed to have a definite value at every point
in space.
Thus fluid properties such as density, temperature,
velocity, and so on, are considered to be continuous
function of position and time.
There exists a non-dimensional number which is utilized to
judge whether fluids are continuous or not. Its definition is
l
Kn =
(1.1)
L
where l is the free mean path of a fluid molecule and L is
the smallest characteristic length of a flow field.

Kn is called Knudsen number.

1.6 Macroscopic physical properties of fluids

1.6.3 specific volume,

1
=

(1.3)

1.6.4 specific weight,

= g

(1.4)

1.6.5 Compressibility of fluids

When fluids are pressurized, the total volume V is
changed. The amount of volume change is the
compressibility of fluids. In fluid mechanics, we use bulk
modulus which is denoted as

dP
dP
E = -V
= ,
dV
d

(1.5)

A high bulk modulus means that fluids are not easy

to be compressed. Hence, fluids with a high bulk modulus
are incompressible. Units and dimensions of bulk modulus
are as same as pressure.
1.7 Ideal gas law
The ideal gas law describes the relationship among
pressure, density, and temperature for an ideal gas. It can
be shown that P = RT where R is the gas constant. For air

R = 287.03 m2 s-2 K-1 = 1716.4 ft2 s-2 R-2

(1.6)

1.8 Pascals law

The Pascals law indicates that pressure transmission
does not decrease within a closed container filled with
fluids. As shown in Fig. 1.4, pressure at point A and point B
are equal in terms of Pascal law. Therefore, if we apply a
force to the area A, it will produce a force on B and the force
is larger than the force on A.

1.9 Speed of sound

When disturbances are introduced into fluid, they are
propagated at a finite velocity. The velocity depends on the
compressibility of considered fluids. It is called the acoustic
velocity or speed of sound, C. It is defined as
dP
C=
=
d

For ideal gases,

d(RT )
C=
= RT
d

Example: Determine acoustic velocities of air and water

where the temperature is 20C.
C water =

E
=

2.19 109 N.m -2

-1
=
1480
m
.
s
998.2kg.m -3

(1.7)

Consider air as an ideal gas

C air = RT = 290m.s

-1

(1.8)

It implies that sound in incompressible fluids propagates

faster than in compressible fluids.

1.9.1 Viscosity, and

Newtonian fluids
Consider fluids are full of two parallel walls. A shear stress,
, is applied to the upper wall. Fluids are deformed
continuously because fluids cannot support shear stresses.

The deformation rate, however, is constant. Furthermore, if

the deformation rate or the so-called rate of strain is
proportional to the shear stress, then the fluid will be
classified as a Newtonian fluids, i.e.

d
,
dt

(1.9)

where is shear angle or

In addition,
Hence,

d
=
dt

(1.10)

d du
=
dt dy

(1.11)

du
=
dy

(1.12)

Again, the relationship between shear stress acting on

a Newtonian fluid and rate of strain (or velocity gradient) is
linear. If it is not linear, then the fluid will be called a nonNewtonian fluid. is the so-called dynamic viscosity. Its
units are dyne.(s/cm2) or Poise (cP). In addition, lb.(s/in2) or
Ryne in B. G. 1 micro-Ryne = 0.145 (cP)
Another definition of viscosity is the kinematic viscosity
which is =/ Its units are cm2/s or Stoke (cS) in S.I. In
addition, in2/s or Newt in B.G. 1 Newt = 0.00155 (cS).
Example: Determine the shear stress exerted on the bottom.

Solution:

According to Newtons viscosity law, we have

du
b =
dy

(1.13)
y=0

The velocity profile is available by a no-slip boundary

condition, i.e.

U
u= y
d
0.1m.s 1
=
y
0.005m
= 20 y.

(1.14)

In addition, the velocity gradient on the bottom can be

obtained by
du
dy

y=0

U
= = 20
d

(1.15)

Therefore, the shear stress is

b = 0.036 20 = 0.72 N.m -2

(1.16)

Saybolt viscometer
When we try to measure the viscosity for a fluid, we
do not measure the shear stress, and the velocity gradient
but another variable, time.
Saybolt viscometer is designed to measure the viscosity of
a fluid in constant temperature.
The principle of a fluids drain from a container in
constant temperature and we measure the total time till it
takes for 60 ml of fluids.
Then we use empirical formulae to evaluate
kinematic viscosity,

The time, measured in second, is the viscosity of the oil in

official units called Saybolt Universal Seconds (SOS).
195
(cS) = 0.226 t , t 100SOS
t

(1.17)

135
(cS) = 0.22t , t 100SOS
t

(1.18)

(temperature = 150F)

1.10 Hookes law and Newtons viscosity law

Hookes law for solid element

= E = E
L

(1.19)

where is stress, is strain and E is the so-called Youngs

modulus.

Newtons viscosity law

du
= =
dy
.

(1.20)

In solid mechanics, we utilize displacement to

describe solid motions or response. Velocity, however, is
employed in fluid motions instead of displacement.
It is because fluid deformation under shear stress is
continuous, so it is hard to find a displacement to indicate
the magnitude of a fluid motion.

Categories of Fluid Dynamics

Hydrodynamics and Hydraulics
Inviscid Fluid Flows (Potential Flows) and Viscous Fluid
Flows
Laminar Flows and Turbulent Flows
Internal Flows and External Flows

FLUID STATICS
In fluid statics, fluids at rest are considered. NO
relative motion between adjacent fluid particles.
Since there is no relative motion between fluids,
viscous stress should not exist. Otherwise, fluids would not
be at rest.
Weight of fluids is the only force in fluid statics.
To keep static equilibrium, resultant forces must be
zero.
Therefore pressure should be included to keep equilibrium.

Review of Taylor Expansion

For a continuous function, f(x), it can be expanded in
a power series in the neighborhood of x = . The Taylor
expansion is given by

2.2 Pressure
Pressure is continuous throughout a flow field in
terms of continuum concept. Pressure is isotropic. In other
words, pressure is independent of direction.

Positive pressure means compression. On the other

hand, negative pressure means tension.
It is opposite to a normal stress. Pressure can be
regarded as a scalar.

Units of pressure
S. I.
1 N.m-2 = 1 Pascal (Pa) = 0.01 mbar (mb)

(2.10)

B. G.
1 lb.in-2 = 1 psi =144 psf (lbf.ft-2)

(2.11)

2.3 The Hydrostatic Equation

Consider a fluid particle at rest shown in Fig. 2.2.
The centroid of the fluid element is at the original point O.

The fluid element has a small volume V = xyz.

Furthermore, the fluid is at static equilibrium, so resultant
forces acting on the fluid element should be zero, i.e.

F = 0

(2.12)

No shear stresses should exist owing to static equilibrium.

Therefore, we can just consider resultant forces in zdirection, i.e.

=0

(2.13)
Resultant forces in the z-direction include the weight of the
fluid and surface forces caused by pressure. The weight of
the fluid particle can be given by
(2.14)
z

W = gV = gxyz

2.4 Pressure variation in incompressible fluids

Density is constant throughout an incompressible
fluid domain. Hence, we can evaluate the pressure
difference between two points (z = z1 and z2), i.e.

P =
2
1

dP
dz
dz

= - gdz
1

= -g dz
1

= -g ( z 2 - z1 )

P
is called a pressure head and equal to -z
g

(2.24)

2.5 Pressure variation in compressible fluids

Density is not constant throughout a compressible fluid
domain. In other words, density may be affected by
temperature and pressure.
If we consider a perfect gas, then the equation of state for a
perfect gas can be used:
P = RT

(2.25)

Substituting the perfect gas law to the hydrostatic equation,

we obtain
dP
Pg dP
g
= -g =
=dz
dz
RT P
RT

(2.26)

In addition, the pressure difference between two

points (z = z1 and z2) can be evaluated by integrating the
hydrostatic equation:

dP
=
P

g
dz
RT

g
= ln P = ( z 2 - z1 )
RT
2
1

(2.27)

Example: Determine the pressure at the gasolinewater interface, and at the bottom of the tank (see Fig.
2.3). Gasoline and water can both regarded as
incompressible fluids. Hence,

P1 = gasoline .h + P0

(2.28)

If we assume P0 = 0, then
P1 = 0.68*0.62.4lb/ft3 *17 = 721 psf

(2.29)

In addition, the pressure at the bottom is determined by

P2 = water * 3 + P1
= 62.4*3+721
= 908 psf

(2.30)

2.6 Standard Atmosphere

Sea level condition of the U. S. Standard Atmosphere.

Homework: Derive the formula for the pressure variation

within the convection layer. Remember pressure and
temperature are both functions of elevation.

2.6.1 Absolute pressure

Pressure measured relative to an absolute vacuum. (Pb)
2.6.2 Gauge Pressure
Pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure. (Pg)

Pb = Pg + Pa

(2.35)

(Pa: atmospheric pressure)

Consider fluid shown in Fig. 2.5. Its depth is h. If we
evaluate pressure at z = h d, pressure at z = h d should
include two components, atmospheric pressure and static
pressure, i.e.
Pz = Pa + gd = Pa + g(h z)

(2.36)

The resultant force acting on a small area dA at z can be

given by

dF = Pz dA = Pa + g (h - z)dA

(2.37)

If we evaluate the resultant force on the bottom, then we

obtain

F = (Pa + gh )dA

(2.38)

2.7 Facilities for pressure measurement

2.7.1 Manometers

Manometers are utilized to measure pressure

difference between two points,

P = P1 - P2 = gh

(2.39)

2.7.2 Barometers
Barometers are devices designed to measure absolute
pressure.

Pb = gh

(2.40)

2.8 Inclined-tube Manometer

The main purpose of an inclined-tube manometer is to
improve its resolution. Therefore, if a small pressure
change is expected in an experiment, then an inclinedtube manometer should be considered.

P1 = P2 + 2 (l 2 sin )

(2.41)

PA + 1h1 = PB + 3 h 2 + 2 (l 2 sin )(2.42)

PA - PB = 3 h 3 + 2 (l 2 sin ) - 1h1

(2.43)

If we ignore 1 and 3, then

and

PA - PB = 2 l 2 sin

(2.44)

PA - PB
l2 =
2 sin

(2.45)

If PA PB and 2 are constant, l2 is quite large as is small.

2.9 Hydrostatic force on vertical walls of constant width

dF = Pb wdz

(2.46)

Pb = Pa + g (h - z)

(2.47)

dF = [ P a +g ( h - z ) ] wdz

(2.48)

For the whole vertical wall, the resultant force is

F =

dF

[P
h

+ g ( h - z ) ]wdz

= Pa wdz + g ( h - z ) wdz

(2.49)

If we just consider pressure caused by the weight of fluids,

then the force will be

gh 2
Fs =
w
2

(2.50)

The force exerts a moment at points z = 0 and the moment

is given by
(2.51)
dM 0 = zdFs = z * g (h - z) wdz
and then
M 0 = dM 0
h

= g (h - z) wzdz
0

hz z
= gw (
- )
2 3 0

h3 h3
= gw ( - )
2 3
gh 3 w
=
6

(2.52)

We can evaluate the moment arm z , i.e.

gh 3 w
M0
h
3
z=
=
=
2
gh w 3
F
2

(2.53)

2.10 Hydrostatic force on an inclined surface

Consider an inclined surface shown in Fig. 2.10, then

dF = ghdA, h = y sin
= ghy sin dA, dA = wdy

(2.54)

and

F = dF
= gy sin dA

= g sin ydA

(2.55)

ydA is the first moment of the area with respect to the xaxis, so we can say

ydA = y A,
c

(2.56)

where yc is the centroid of the area. Furthermore, the

resultant force becomes

F = g sin y c A
= gh c A

(2.57)
We consider the moment caused by the resultant force with
respect to the original point O. First of all, we know

dM = ydF
and then

(2.58)

M = dM

= ydF
= gy 2 sin dA

(2.59)

2
y
dA

is called the second moment of the area with respect

to the x-axis,
M = F. yR

(2.60)

and
g sin y 2 dA

M
Ix
yR =
=
=
F
g sin y c A
yc A

(2.61)

where yR is the acting point of the resultant force or socalled the centre of pressure.

Example: Consider a dam of width 100 m and depth 6 m.

Determine the resultant hydrostatic force and the moment
with respect to A.

Solution:
F = hcA
= (h/2)A
= 1000X9.8X0.5X6X(6X100)
= 17660 kN
M = F. hf
= F.(1/3)h
= 35320 kN-m

(2.62)

2.11 Hydrostatic force on a curved surface

Consider a curved surface shown in Fig. 2.12. The resultant
force acting on a small element of the curved surface is
given by

dF = Pn.dA
= g(h z)n.dA

(2.63)

The resultant force in the x-direction, Fx, can be denoted

as

dFx = g ( h - z ) sin dA

(2.64)

where is the angle between the z-axis and the normal

direction of the small area. In addition,
Fx = dFx
= g ( h - z ) sin dA

= g ( h - z ) sin dA
= g ( h - z ) dA v ,

(2.65)

where dAv is the projected area of dA on the z-axis. In

terms of the formula, the resultant force in the x-axis is
equal to the force acting on a vertical plane.
On the other hand, the resultant force in the z-axis is given
by

dFz = -g ( h - z ) cos dA

(2.66)

In addition,
Fz = dFz
= - g ( h - z)) cos dA

= -h ( h - z ) dA h

(2.67)

where dAh is the projected area of dA on the x-axis.

In terms of this formula, Fz is equal to the weight of liquids
above the curved surface. The resultant force F can be
given by
F = Fx2 + Fz2
(2.68)

2.12 Buoyance
It is well-known that Archimede provided the
buoynce principle to evaluate the buoyant force acting on a
submerged solid body. In fact, we can derive the buoyance
principle from the hydrostatic equation.
Let us consider a submerged body shown in Fig. 2.13. The
resultant force caused by pressure on the small wetted area
is given by

dF = P2 dA - P1dA = ( - gz 2 + gz1 ) dA
and

(2.69)

F = dF = g ( z1 - z 2 ) dA = -gV

(2.70)

Therefore, we know the resultant force caused by static

pressure or called the buoyant force is equal to the weight
of liquids of volume equal to the submerged body.
In addition, the point where the buoyant force exerts in
called the centre of buoyance.