4 Fundamentals of Particle

Swarm Optimization Techniques

Yoshikazu Fukuyama

4.1 Introduction
Eberhart and Kennedy developed particle
swarm optimization (PSO) based on the
analogy of swarms of birds and fish
schooling.
Each individual exchanges previous
experiences in PSO.
These research efforts are called swarm
intelligence.

4.2 Basic Particle Swarm

Optimization

4.2.1 Background of Particle

Swarm Optimization
Swarm behavior can be modeled with a
few simple rules.
Schools of fishes and swarms of birds can
be modeled with such simple models.
Even if the behavior rules of each
individual (agent) are simple, the behavior
of the swarm can be complicated.

4.2.1 Background of Particle

Swarm Optimization (cont)
Boyd and Richerson examined the
decision process of humans and
developed the concept of individual
learning and cultural transmission.
People utilize two important kinds of
information in decision process: their own
experience and other peoples
experiences.

4.2.2 Original PSO

Kennedy and Eberhart developed PSO
through simulation of bird flocking in a
two-dimensional space.
Bird flocking optimizes a certain objective
function.
Each agent knows its best value so far
(pbest) and its x, y position. This
information is an analogy of the personal
experiences of each agent.

4.2.2 Original PSO (cont)

each agent knows the best value so far in
the group (gbest) among pbests. This
information is an analogy of the
knowledge of how the other agents around
them have performed.

4.2.2 Original PSO (cont)

First term in (4.1) is for exploration, the

2nd and 3rd terms are for exploitation.

4.2.2 Original PSO (cont)

At the beginning of the search procedure,

diversification is heavily weighted, while
intensification is heavily weighted at the
end of the search procedure.

4.2.2 Original PSO (cont)

4.2.2 Original PSO (cont)

4.2.2 Original PSO (cont)

4.3 Variations of Particle Swarm

Optimization

4.3.1 Discrete PSO

4.3.2 PSO for MINLPs

Engineering problems often pose both
discrete and continuous variables using
nonlinear objective functions.
The whole calculation of RHS of (4.1) is
discretized to the existing discrete number.

4.3.3 Constriction Factor Approach

(CFA)
Clerc and Kennedy developed CFA of PSO by
eigenvalues.
The convergence characteristic of the system
can be controlled by

4.3.4 Hybrid PSO (HPSO)

Angeline developed HPSO by combining
the selection mechanism of EC
techniques with PSO.
The number of highly evaluated agents is
increased whereas the number of lowly
evaluated agents is decreased at each
iteration by HPSO.

4.3.4 Hybrid PSO (HPSO) (cont)

4.3.5 Lbest Model

Eberhart and Kennedy also developed an
lbest model [6].
In the model, agents have information only
of their own and their nearest array
neighbors bests (lbests), rather than that
of the entire group.

4.3.6 Adaptive PSO (APSO)

4.3.7 Evolutionary PSO (EPSO)

4.4 Research Areas and

Applications

4.5 Conclusions
PSO can be an efficient optimization tool
for nonlinear continuous optimization
problems, combinatorial optimization
problems, and mixed-integer nonlinear
optimization problems (MINLPs).