Three Stages of Contraction (Shrinkage)

The liquid Metal has a Volume

"A

It solidifies to solid with a new

volume "B"

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION

Atm.Pressure

Pouring basin

MOULD
SPRUE

GATE

LIKE A PRESSURISED SYSTEM

MOULDERS
TOOLS
AND
EQUIPMENT

MOULDING BOARD
FLASK
SHOWEL
DRAW SPIKE
RIDDLE
SLICK
RAMMER
LIFTER
STRIKE-OFF BAR

Design of Risers and Feeding of

Castings
A simplified diagram by putting in
references to the equations (1, 2 & 4)
there is no Equation 3, diagram not changed

EQ(1) - Freeze Point Ratio (FPR)

FPR=X
X = (Casting Surface/Casting Volume) /
(Riser Surface/Riser Volume)

EQ(2) - Volume Ratio (VR) (Y Axis)

VR=Y=Riser Vol/Casting Vol*

Note: The riser volume is the actual poured

volume

EQ(4) - (Freeze Point Ratio) Steel

X=0.12/y-0.05 + 1.0*
*The constants are from experiments and
are empirical
References - AFS Text Chapter 16; Chastain's Foundry manual Vol 2, Google

Volumes, Surface Areas, Castings and

Risers...
There are relationships between all these
items and values that will help in designing
a complete mold that controls progressive
solidification, and influences directional
solidification to produce castings with
minimal porosity and shrinkage defects.
This is by ensuring that the riser(s) are the
last to solidify.

Gating / Runner Design

Now a look at the flow characteristics of the

metal as it enters the mold and how it fills the
casting.

Of the flow characteristics

fluidity/viscosity plays a role. Also,
velocity,
gravitational acceleration & vortex,
pressure zones,
molten alloy aspiration from the mold and
the momentum or kinetic energy of a fluid.

The demarcation point is

Re < 2000 is considered a Laminar Flow
Re > 2000 is considered a Turbulent Flow
Objective is to maintain Re below 2000.

LAMINAR FLOW- REFERENCE

TURBULENT FLOWREFERENCE

SEVERELY TURBULENT FLOW

TEST FOR
FLUIDITY
USING A SPIRAL
MOULD.
FLUIDITY INDEX IS
THE LENGTH OF
THE SOLIDIFIED
METAL IN THE
SPIRAL PASSAGE.
GREATER THE
LENGTH, GREATER
THE FLUIDITY
INDEX.

Basic Components of a Gating System

The basic components of a gating system are:
Pouring Basin,
Sprue,
Runners and
Gates that feed the casting.
The metal flows through the system in this order.
Some simple diagrams to be familiar with are:

The Runner System

The runner system is fed by the well

and is the path that the gates are fed
from.
This path should be "Balanced" with the
model of heating or AC ductwork
serving as a good illustration. The
Runner path should promote smooth
laminar flow by a balanced volumetric
flow, and avoiding sharp or abrupt
changes in direction.
The "Runner Extension" is a "DeadEnd" that is placed after the last gate.
The R-Ext acts as a cushion to absorb
the forward momentum or kinetic
energy of the fluid flow. The R-Ext also
acts as a "Dross/Gas Trap" for any
materials generated and picked-up
along the flow of the runner.
An Ideal Runner is also proportioned
such that it maintains a constant
volumetric flow through virtually any
cross-sectional area. In the illustration,
notice that the runner becomes
proportionally shallower at the point
where an in-gate creates an alternate
path for the liquid flow.

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION-

Formulae, Ratios and Design Equations

What is covered so far is comprehensive, and intuitive on a

conceptual level, but the math below hopefully offers some insight
into quick approximations for simple designs, and more in-depth
calculations for complex systems.
Computerized Flow Analysis programs are used extensively in large
Foundry operations.
From basic concepts, designing on a state of the art system shall be
attempted:

Continuity Equation

This formula allows calculation of cross-sectional areas, relative to

flow Velocity and Volumetric flow over unit time. This is with the
assumption that the fluid flow is a liquid that does NOT
compress (that applies to all molten metals).

Here, a flow passes through A1

(1" by 1", 1 sq")

The passage narrows to a crosssectional area A2

Q= Rate of Flow
(Constant - uncompressible)
V=Velocity of flow
A=Area (Cross-section)

(.75" by .75", 0.5625 sq")

The passage expands to a crosssectional area A3

(1" by 1", 1 sq").
If A1 and A2 are considered, the Area A2 is almost half of
A1, thus the velocity at A2 has to be almost double of A1.

GATING RATIO isAreas of Choke : Runner : Gate(s)

The base of the Sprue and Choke are the
same.
The ratios between the cross-sectional Area can
be grouped into either Pressurized or
Unpressurized.

Pressurized: A system where the gate

and runner cross-sectional areas are either

equal or less than the choke cross-sectional
area.

 Areas A2 & A3 do not get

added as they are
positioned in line with
each other and flow is
successive between the
points and not
simultaneous.
While Areas A4 & A5 are
added together as flow
does pass through these
points simultaneously.
This example would
resolve to a pressurized
flow of 1 : 0.75 : 0.66

A1= Choke = 1 Sq Inch

A2 = 1st Runner c/s Area = 0.75 Sq Inch
A3 = 2nd Runner c/s Area = 0.66 Sq Inch
A4 = 1st Gate = 0.33 Sq inch
A5 = 2nd Gate = 0.33 Sq Inch

 An exception is noted in Chastain with a 1 : 8 : 6

ratio to promote dross capture in the runner
system of Aero-Space castings.
The Continuity Equation is simplified with the
use of ratios as the velocity is inversely
proportional between any 2 adjacent ratio
values. ie H : L equates to an increase in
velocity while a L : H equates to a drop in
velocity.
Laminar Flow is harder to control at a high
velocity than a relatively lower velocity.
Chastain's Vol 2 has much more mathematical
expressions and calculations.

PURE METALSHave clearly defined melting/freezing point,

solidifies at a constant temperature.
Eg: Al - 6600C,
Fe - 15370C,
and W- 34100C.
NITC

Development of a preferred texture

- at a cool mould wall.
A chill zone close to the wall and
then a columnar zone away from
the mould.

Solidified structures of metal solidified in a square mould

(a). Pure metal
(b). Solid solution
(c). When thermal gradient is absent
within solidifying metal

Three basic types of cast structures(a). Columnar dendritic;

(b). equiaxed dendritic;
(c). equiaxed nondendritic

SOLIDIFICATION TIME
During solidification, thin solidified
skin begins to form at the cool mould
walls.
Thickness increases with time.

NITC

CHVORINOVS RULE
solidification time (t) is a function of volume of
the casting and its surface area

t = C ( volume/ surface area )2

C is a constant [depends on mould material, metal
properties including latent heat, temperature]
A large sphere solidifies and cools at a much slower rate
than a small diameter sphere. (Eg- potatoes, one big and

NITC

Solidification time for various shapes :

Eg: Three pieces cast with the SAME volume, but different shapes.
(i)Sphere, (ii)Cube, (iii)Cylinder with height = diameter.
Which piece solidifies the fastest?
Solution: Solidification time = C (volume/surface area)2
Let volume = unity. As volume is same, t = C/ surface area2.

Sphere: V= 4/3 ( r3); i.e. r = (3/4 )1/3

A= 4 r2 = 4 (3/4 )1/3 = 4.84
Cube: V = a3; ie a = 1; A = 6 a2 = 6.
Cylinder: V = r2h = 2 r3; ie, r = (1/2 ) 1/3
A = 2 r2 + 2rh = 6 r2 = 5.54.
Then, t cube = 0.028C ; t cylinder = 0.033C ; t sphere= 0.043C
Metal poured to cube shaped mould solidifies the fastest.

NITC

SHRINKAGE AND POROSITY

METALS SHRINK(CONTRACT) DURING
SOLIDIFICATION
- CAUSES DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
LEADING TO CENTRE LINE SHRINKAGE, POROSITY,
CRACKING TOO
NITC

SHRINKAGE DUE TO:

(1).CONTRACTION OF
MOLTEN METAL AS IT
COOLS PRIOR TO
SOLIDIFICATION

(2) CONTRACTION OF
SOLIDIFYING METAL,
LATENT HEAT OF
FUSION

2
T
3

(3) CONTRACTION OF
SOLIDIFIED METAL
DURING DROP TO
AMBIENT TEMP

Time
OUT OF THESE, LARGEST SHRINKAGE DURING
COOLING OF CASTING (ITEM 3) eg:pure metal

NITC

SOLIDIFICATION CONTRACTION FOR VARIOUS METALS

METAL Volumetric Solidification Contraction

Al
6.6
Grey cast Iron
Expansion 2.5
Carbon Steel
2.5 to 3
Copper
4.9
Magnesium
4.2
Zinc
6.5

NITC

 POROSITY DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF GASES

AND METAL TOO.
RELATED TO DUCTILITY
AND SURFACE FINISH
(DUCTILITY V/S POROSITY CURVES FOR
DIFFERENT METALS)
- ELIMINATION BY VARIOUS MEANS
(ADEQUATE SUPPLY OF LIQUID METAL, USE OF
CHILLS, NARROWING MUSHY ZONE- CASTING
SUBJECTED TO ISOSTATIC PRESSING

NITC

POROSITY BY GASES
LIQUID METALS HAVE HIGH SOLUBILITY FOR
GASES
DISSOLVED GASES EXPELLED FROM
SOLUTION DURING SOLIDIFICATION

(Hydrogen, Nitrogen mainly)

ACCUMULATE IN REGIONS OF EXISTING
POROSITY OR

NITC

Ductility

Effect of microporosity on the ductility of quenched and

tempered cast steel Porosity affects the pressure tightness of
cast pressure vessel

Elongation

Reduction of area

10

Porosity(%)

15

NITC

NIT CALICUT

Type of pattern depends on:

Shape and size of casting,
number of castings required,
method of moulding employed,
easiness or difficulties of the moulding
operations,
other factors peculiar to the casting.

NITC

Pattern,

Finish Allowance,

and Wall Thickness

Min
Wall
mm

Metal

Pattern
Oversize Factor
(each direction)

Finish Allowance
(smaller number
for larger sizes)

Aluminum

1.08 - 1.12

0.5 to 1.0 %

4.75

Copper alloys

1.05 - 1.06

0.5 to 1.0 %

2.3

Gray Cast Iron

1.10

0.4 to 1.6 %

3.0

Nickel alloys

1.05

0.5 to 1.0 %

N/A

Steel

1.05 - 1.10

0.5 to 2 %

Magnesium
alloys

1.07 - 1.10

0.5 to 1.0 %

4.0

Malleable
Irons

1.06 - 1.19

0.6 to 1.6 %

3.0

CHARACTERISTICS OF
PATTERN MATERIALS
CHARACTERISTIC

RATING
WOOD

MACHINABILITY
WEAR RESISTANCE
STRENGTH
WEIGHT
REPAIRABILITY
RESISTANCE TO:

AL

STEEL

PLASTIC CAST IRON

E
P
E
E
E

G
G
G
G
P

F
E
E
P
G

G
F
G
G
F

G
E
G
P
G

CORROSION (by water) E

SWELLING
P

E
E

P
E

E
E

P
E

E- Excellent; G- Good; F-fair, P- Poor

NITC

Functions of pattern

Moulding the Gating system;

Establishing a parting Line,
Making Cores,
Minimising casting Defects,
Providing Economy in moulding
Others, as needed

MOULDING SAND
Granular particles from the breakdown of rocks by frost, wind, heat and water currents
Complex Composition in different places
At bottom and banks of rivers
- mainly silica (86 to 90%); Alumina (4% to 8 %);
Iron oxide (2 to 5%) with oxides of Ti, Mn, Ca. etc.

NITC

NATURAL SAND , called Green sand. Only water as binder; can maintain water for long time
SYNTHETIC SAND.- (1)GREEN and (2)DRY types
(1) Artificial sand by mixing clay free sand, binder(water and bentonite)
Contains New silica sand 25%; Old sand 70%;
bentonite 1.5%;moisture 3% to 3.5%

(2) New 15%; Old 84%;

bentonite and moisture 0.5 % each

NITC

DRY SAND- for moulding large castings. Moulds of green sand dried and baked with venting done. Add- cow dung, horse manure etc.
LOAM SAND- mixture of clay and sand milled with water to thin plastic paste. Mould made on soft bricks. The mould dried very slowly before cast. For large regular shapesdrums, chemical pans etc.
FACING SAND- used directly with surface of pattern; comes in contact with molten metal; must have high strength, refractoriness.
Silica sand and clay without used sand- plumbago powder, Ceylon lead, or graphite used. Layer of 20 to 30 mm thick--about 10% to 15% of whole mould sand

NITC

BACKING SAND- old used moulding sand called floor sand black in colour. Used to fill mould at back of facing layer. Weak in bonding strength
SYSTEM SAND- used in machine moulding to fill whole of flask. Strength, premealibility and refractoriness high
PARTING SAND- used for separating boxes from adhering, free from clay
CORE SAND- for making cores. Silica sand with core oil (linseed oil, rosin, light mineral oil, binders etc)
SPECIALISED SANDS - like CO2 sand, Shell sand, etc for special applications
Mould washers- slurry of fine ceramic grains applied on mould surface to minimize fusing

NITC

About MOULDING SAND

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

NATURAL SAND
SYNTHETIC SAND.- GREEN and DRY
DRY SAND
LOAM SAND
FACING SAND
BACKING SAND
SYSTEM SAND
PARTING SAND
CORE SAND
SPECIALISED SANDS
Mould washers
NITC

ADV - Acid Demand Value

Defined as the property of a sand or additive to affect
the cure process as a function of the materials acidity
or basicity on the pH scale.

MOULDING SAND- PROPERTIES

Green Strength- Adequate strength after mixing, and
plasticity for handling
Dry Strength- After pouring molten metal, adjacent surface
loses water content. Dries. Dry sand must have enough
strength to resist erosion
Hot Strength- Strength at elevated temperature after
evaporation of moisture
Permeability- Permeable or porous to permit gases to escape.
Ability of sand moulds to allow the escape of gases

NITC

 Thermal stability- Rapid expansion of sand surface at

mould-metal interface. May crack. Results in defect called
SCAB
Refractoriness- Ability of sand to withstand high
temperature
Flowability- Ability to flow & fill narrow portions around
pattern
Surface finish- Ability to produce good surface finish in
casting
Collapsibility- Allow easy removal of casting from mould
Reclamation- Should be reusable and reclaimable

NITC

FURNACES

Proper selection depends on:

Composition and melting point of alloy to be cast
Control of atmospheric contamination
Capacity and rate of melting required
Environmental considerations- noise, pollution
Power supply, availability, cost of fuels
Economic considerations-initial cost, operating cost,
maintenance cost etc.
CUPOLAS (> 50 T, VERTICAL, HIGH RATES)
ELECTRIC FURNACES
INDUCTION FURNACES

NITC

NITC

NITC

Casting Defects
Metal casters try to produce perfect castings.
A few castings, however, are completely free of
defects.
Modern foundries have sophisticated inspection
equipment which can detect small differences in
size and a wide variety of external and even
internal defects.
For example, slight shrinkage on the back of a
decorative wall plaque is acceptable whereas
similar shrinkage on a position cannot be
tolerated.
No matter what the intended use, however, the
goal of modern foundries is zero defects in all
castings

Scrap castings cause much concern.

In industry, scrap results in smaller profits for the company and

ultimately affects individual wages.

Scrap meetings are held daily. Managers of all the major departments
attend these meetings. They gather castings that have been identified as
scrap by inspector. The defect is circled with chalk. An effort is made to
analyze the cause of the defect, and the manager whose department was
responsible for it is directed to take corrective action to eliminate that
specific defect in future castings.

There are so many variables in the production of a metal casting

that the cause is often a combination of several factors rather than
a single one.

All pertinent data related to the production of the casting (sand

and core properties, pouring temperature) must be known in order
to identify the defect correctly.

After the defect is identified attempt should be to eliminate the

defect by taking appropriate corrective action.

CASTING DEFECTS
SURFACE
METALLIC PROJECTION (4)
DEFECTIVE SURFACE (11)
CHANGE IN DIMENSION- WARP
INCOMPLETE CASTING
MISRUN, RUNOUT
CAVITYBLOWHOLES, SHRINKAGE
PINHOLES
DISCONTINUITY
HOT CRACK
COLD SHUT, COLD CRACK

SUBSURFACE
SUBSURFACE CAVITY
INCLUSIONS
DISCONTINUITY

NITC

CASTING DEFECTS
SURFACE

METALLIC PROJECTION

Swell, Crush, Mould Drop, Fillet Vein

DEFECTIVE SURFACE
Erosion Scab, Fusion, Expansion Scab, Rat tails,
Buckle, Seams, Gas Runs, Fillet Scab, Rough
Surface, Slag Inclusion, Elephant Skin
CHANGE IN DIMENSIONWarped casting
INCOMPLETE CASTINGMisrun, Run out
CAVITYBlow Holes, Shrinkage cavity, Pinholes
DISCONTINUITYHot6 Cracking, Cold Shut, Cold Cracking

SUBSURFACE
SUBSURFACE CAVITYBlow Holes, Pin Holes, Shrinkage
Porosity, Internal Shrinkage,
Severe
Roughness
INCLUSIONSGas Inclusions, Slag, Blow Holes
DISCONTINUITYCold Shuts

NITC

Repairability

FINS OR FLASH ON CASTINGS -AsMetallic Projections

Joint flash or fins. Flat projection of irregular thickness,
often with lacy edges, perpendicular to one of the faces
of the casting. It occurs along the joint or parting line of
the mold, at a core print, or wherever two elements of
the mold intersect.
Possible Causes
Clearance between two elements of the mold or between
mold and core;
Poorly fit mold joint.
Remedies
Care in pattern making, molding and core making;
Control of their dimensions;
Care in core setting and mold assembly;
Sealing of joints where possible.

Flask was disturbed while investment was setting.

Base was removed too soon.
Flask was allowed to partially dry before dewaxing.
Incorrect dewaxing or a furnace malfunction.
Flask burned out and allowed to cool below (500oF (260oC)
before casting reheating, flask allowed to cool between
dewax and placement in preheated oven.
Flask was improperly handled or dropped.
Speed was set too high on centrifugal casting machine.
Patterns were placed on one plane. The should be staggered
on top rack.
Incorrect water powder ratio was used.
Not enough investment was placed over the patterns.
Flask was placed too close to heat source in burnout oven.
Flasks were not held at low burnout temperature long
enough.

DEFECTS IN CASTINGS- CAN BE ELIMINATED/MINIMISED

BY PROPER DESIGN, MOLD PREPARATION, PROPER
POURING.
NITC

DEFECTS IN CASTINGS- AS HOT TEARS - DUE TO

CONSTRAINTS IN LOCATIONS, CASTINGS CANNOT
SHRINK FREELY
NITC

Cavities
Blowholes, pinholes. Smooth-walled cavities,
essentially spherical, often not contacting the
external casting surface (blowholes). The largest
cavities are most often isolated; the smallest
(pinholes) appear in groups of varying
dimensions.
The interior walls of blowholes and pinholes can
be shiny, more or less oxidized or, in the case of
cast iron, can be covered with a thin layer of
graphite. The defect can appear in all regions of
the casting.

Possible Causes

Because of gas entrapped in the metal during the course of

solidification:
Excessive gas content in metal bath (charge materials, melting
method, atmosphere, etc.); Dissolved gases are released during
solidification.

In steel and cast irons: formation of carbon monoxide by the

reaction of carbon and oxygen, presents as a gas or in oxide form.
Blowholes from carbon monoxide may increase in size by diffusion
of hydrogen or, less often, nitrogen.

Excessive moisture in molds or cores.

Core binders which liberate large amounts of gas.
Excessive amounts of additives containing hydrocarbons.
Blacking and washes which tend to liberate too much gas.
Insufficient evacuation of air and gas from the mold cavity;
-insufficient mold and core permeability.
Entrainment of air due to turbulence in the runner system.

 Remedies
Make adequate provision for evacuation of air
and gas from the mold cavity
Increase permeability of mold and cores
Avoid improper gating systems
Assure adequate baking of dry sand molds
Control moisture levels in green sand molding
Reduce amounts of binders and additives used
or change to other types; -use blackings and
washes, which provide a reducing atmosphere;
-keep the spree filled and reduce pouring height
Increase static pressure by enlarging runner
height.

Discontinuities

Hot cracking. A crack often scarcely visible because the casting in

general has not separated into fragments. The fracture surfaces
may be discolored because of oxidation. The design of the casting is
such that the crack would not be expected to result from constraints
during cooling.

Possible Causes
Damage to the casting while hot due to rough handling or excessive
temperature at shakeout.

Remedies
Care in shakeout and in handling the casting while it is still hot;
Sufficient cooling of the casting in the mold;
For metallic molds; delay knockout, assure mold alignment, use
ejector pins

Defective Surface
Flow marks. On the surfaces of otherwise sound castings,
the defect appears as lines which trace the flow of the
streams of liquid metal.

Possible Causes
Oxide films which lodge at the surface, partially marking the
paths of metal flow through the mold.

Remedies
Increase mold temperature;
Lower the pouring temperature;
Modify gate size and location (for permanent molding by
gravity or low pressure);
Tilt the mold during pouring;
In die casting: vapor blast or sand blast mold surfaces which
are perpendicular, or nearly perpendicular, to the mold parting
line.

Incomplete Casting
Poured short. The upper portion of the casting is missing.
The edges adjacent to the missing section are slightly
rounded, all other contours conform to the pattern. The
spree, risers and lateral vents are filled only to the same
height above the parting line, as is the casting (contrary to
what is observed in the case of defect).
Possible Causes
Insufficient quantity of liquid metal in the ladle;
Premature interruption of pouring due to workmans error.

Remedies
Have sufficient metal in the ladle to fill the mold;
Check the gating system;
Instruct pouring crew and supervise pouring practice.

Incorrect Dimensions or Shape

Distorted casting. Inadequate thickness, extending over
large areas of the cope or drag surfaces at the time the
mold is rammed.
Possible Causes
Rigidity of the pattern or pattern plate is not sufficient to
withstand the ramming pressure applied to the sand. The
result is an elastic deformation of the pattern and a
corresponding, permanent deformation of the mold
cavity. In diagnosing the condition, the compare the
surfaces of the pattern with those of the mold itself.
Remedy
Assure adequate rigidity of patterns and pattern plates,
especially when squeeze pressures are being increased.

Inclusions or Structural Anomalies

Metallic Inclusions. Metallic or intermetallic inclusions of various sizes which

are distinctly different in structure and color from the base material, and most
especially different in properties. These defects most often appear after
machining.

Possible Causes
Combinations formed as intermetallics between the melt and metallic impurities
(foreign impurities);
Charge materials or alloy additions which have not completely dissolved in the
melt;
Exposed core wires or rods;
During solidification, insoluble intermetallic compounds form and segregate,
concentrating in the residual liquid.

Remedies
Assure that charge materials are clean; eliminate foreign metals;
Use small pieces of alloying material and master alloys in making up the charge;
Be sure that the bath is hot enough when making the additions;
Do not make addition too near to the time of pouring;
For nonferrous alloys, protect cast iron crucibles with a suitable wash coating

INCLUSIONS (FOREIGN PARTICLES) IN CASTINGS

Patterns were improperly sprued to wax base or tree or not filleted,

causing investment to break at sharp corners during casting.
Flask was not sufficiently cured before placing into burnout oven.
Improper dewaxing cycle was used.
Flask was not cleaned from prior cast.
Loose investment in sprue hole.
Molten metal contains excess flux or foreign oxides.
Crucible disintegrating or poorly fluxed.
Improperly dried graphite crucible.
Investment was not mixed properly or long enough.
Contaminants in wax pattern.
Flask was not held at low burnout temperature long enough.
Flask was placed too close to heat source in burnout oven.

 POROSITY
Pattern is improperly sprued. Sprues may be too
thin, too long or not attached in the proper
location, causing shrinkage porosity.
Not enough metal reservoir to eliminate
shrinkage porosity.
Metal contains gas.
Mold is too hot.
Too much moisture in the flux.
Too much remelt being used. Always use at
least 50% new metal.
Metal is overheated.
Poor mold burnout.

 ROUGH CASTINGS
A poor quality pattern
Flask was not sufficiently cured before
placing into burnout oven.
Flask was held in steam dewax too long.
Metal, flask or both were too hot.
Patterns were improperly sprued.
Flask was placed too close to heat source
in burnout oven.

 BUBBLES OR NODULES ON
CASTINGS
Vacuum pump is leaking air.
Vacuum pump has water in the oil.
Vacuum pump is low on oil.
Investment not mixed properly or long
enough.
Invested flasks were not vibrated during
vacuum cycle.
Vacuum extended past working time.

 SPALLING (an area of the mold wall

flakes into the mold cavity)
Flask was placed into a furnace at low
temperature (below 150oC) for an
extended period.
Flask was placed too close to the source
of heat.
Sharp corners are struck by metal at high
centrifugal velocities.
Improper burnout cycle was used.

NON-FILL OR INCOMPLETE CASTINGS

Metal was too cold when cast.
Mold was too cold when cast.
The burnout was not complete.
Pattern was improperly sprued, creating
turbulence when casting in a centrifugal
casting machine.
Centrifugal casting machine had too high
revolution per minute.

 GROWTH-LIKE ROUGH CASTING THAT

RESISTS REMOVAL IN PICKLING
SOLUTION
Burnout temperature too high.
Mold temperature was too high when
casting.
Metal temperature was too high when
casting.

 SHINY CASTINGS
Carbon residue was left in the mold,
creating a reducing condition on the
surface.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
CAREFUL CONTROL OF LARGE NUMBER OF
VARIABLES NEEDED
CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS & ALLOYS
CAST

METHOD OF CASTING

MOULD AND DIE MATERIALS

MOULD DESIGN

PROCESS PARAMETERS- POURING,

TEMPERATURE,

GATING SYSTEM

RATE OF COOLING Etc.Etc.

NITC

 Poor casting practices, lack of control of process

variables- DEFECTIVE CASTINGS
TO AVOID DEFECTS Basic economic factors relevant to casting operations to
be studied.
General guidelines applied for all types of castings to be
studied.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

NITC

CORNERS, ANGLES AND SECTION THICKNESS

Sharp corners, angles, fillets to be avoided
Cause cracking and tearing during solidification
Fillet radii selection to ensure proper liquid metal flow3mm to 25 mm.
Too large- volume large & rate of cooling less
Location with largest circle inscribed critical.
Cooling rate less
shrinkage cavities & porosities resultCalled HOT SPOTS

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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTS

AVOID SHARP CORNERS

MAINTAIN UNIFORM CROSS SECTIONS
AVOID SHRINKAGE CAVITIES
USE CHILLS TO INCREASE THE RATE OF COOLING
STAGGER INTERSECTING REGIONS FOR
UNIFORM CROSS SECTIONS
REDESIGN BY MAKING PARTING LINE STRAIGHT
AVOID THE USE OF CORES, IF POSSIBLE
MAINTAIN SECTION THICKNESS UNIFORMITY
BY REDESIGNING (in die cast products)

NITC

 LARGE FLAT AREAS TO BE AVOIDED

WARPING DUE TO TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS

ALLOWANCES FOR SHRINKAGE TO BE PROVIDED
PARTING LINE TO BE ALONG A FLAT PLANEGOOD AT CORNERS OR EDGES OF CASTING
DRAFT TO BE PROVIDED
PERMISSIBLE TOLERANCES TO BE USED
MACHINING ALLOWANCES TO BE MADE
RESIDUAL STRESSES TO BE AVOIDED
ALL THESE FOR EXPENDABLE MOULD CASTINGS.

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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTSAVOID SHARP CORNERS TO REDUCE STRESS

CONCENTRATIONS
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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTSMAINTAIN UNIFORM CROSS SECTIONS TO AVOID HOT

SPOTS AND SHRINKAGE CAVITIES
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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTSGOOD DESIGN PRACTICE

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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTSSTAGGERING OF INTERSECTING REGIONS

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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTSSECTION THICKNESS UNIFORMITY MAINTAINED

THROUGHOUT PART
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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTS

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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTSUSE OF METAL PADDING (CHILLS)

TO INCREASE RATE OF COOLING

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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTSMAKING PARTING LINE STRAIGHT

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DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTSIN DESIGN

NITC

CARBON-DI OXIDE PROCESS

(SILICATE BONDED SAND PROCESS)
FIRST IN 1950s
MIXTURE OF SAND AND 1.5% TO 6 %
SODIUM SILICATE (AS BINDER)
MIXTURE PACKED AROUND THE
PATTERN, HARDENED BY BLOWING CO2
DEVELOPED FURTHER BY ADDDING
OTHER CHEMICALS AS BINDERS
MAINLY TO MAKE CORES-AS USE IS IN
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE APPLICATION

Na2O SiO2 + H2O +CO2

Na2CO3 + (SiO2 +H2O)

(Silica Gel)

Formation of Silica Gel gives strength to the moulds

+ Points:
Drying not necessary
Immediately ready for pouring
Very high strength achieved
Dimensional accuracy very good
- Points
- Collapsibility poor, can be improved by additives
- Na2O SiO2 attacks and spoils wooden pattern

Funnel

Mould
CO2

CO2 Moulding

DIE CASTING

GRAVITY

SEMI PERMANENT MOULD

OR PERMANENT MOULD
COLD CHAMBER
HOT CHAMBER
(HEATING CHAMBER)
OUTSIDE THE MACHINE
INTEGRAL WITH THE MACHINE

PERMANENT MOULD OR GRAVITY DIE CASTING

*METALLIC MOULDS USED

*TWO HALVES OF DIES- ONE FIXED, ONE MOVABLE

VERY CLOSE TOLERANCE CASTINGS, MORE STRENGTH, LESS
POROUS
-BETTER SURFACE FINISH COMPARED TO SAND CASTING
-SURFACE FREE FROM SAND & DENSITY HEAVY
ONLY FOR SMALL AND MEDIUM SIZE CASTINGS
FOR NON FERROUS, MAINLY
LARGE QUANTITY, BUT IDENTICAL PIECES ONLY

PERMANENT MOULD
OR GRAVITY DIE CASTING
*METALLIC MOULDS USED -

MOULD TO

WITHSTAND TEMPERATURE
*NO EXTERNAL PRESSURE APPLIED,
*HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE BY RISERING
*LAMP BLACK/CORE OIL APPLIED TO DIE SURFACES
FOR EASY REMOVAL
NITC

 +POINTS

VERY CLOSE TOLERANCE CASTINGS,

MORE STRENGTH, LESS POROUS
BETTER SURFACE FINISH COMPARED TO
SAND CASTING
SURFACE FREE FROM SAND
DENSITY HEAVY
MORE DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY - 0.06 TO 0.3 MM
DIES LESS COSTLY THAN PRESSURE DIE CASTING DIES
GOOD FOR PRESSURE TIGHT VESSELS
LESS COOLING CRACKS
LESS SKILL
GOOD FOR LARGE QUANTITIES
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- POINTS

ONLY FOR SMALL AND

MEDIUM SIZE CASTINGS
FOR NON FERROUS, MAINLY
LARGE QUANTITY,
BUT IDENTICAL PIECES ONLY
POOR ELONGATION
STRESS AND SURFACE HARDNESS DEFECTS
OBSERVED
CASTING TO BE WITHDRAWN CAREFULLY
FROM DIES

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A TYPICAL DIE

MOULD / DIE HALF

VENT
HOLE

POURING
BASIN

MOULD CAVITY
ECCENTRIC CLAMPING

SEMIPERMANENT DIECASTING
DIE PRESSURE AT 20 TO 20,000 ATM
PRESSURE FILL SOLIDIFICATION
FOR NONFERROUS METALS
FOR INTRICATE SHAPES
CLOSE TOLERANCES POSSIBLE
FOR MASS PRODUCTION, >10,000

NITC

FOR SEMI AND PRESSURE DIE CASTING SET UPS,

THE FOLLOWING FACTORS A MUST
1.

A GOOD DIE SET MECHANISM

2.

MEANS FOR FORCING METAL

3.

DEVICE TO KEEP DIE HALFS PRESSED

4.

ARRANGEMENT FOR
NITC
AUTOMATIC REMOVAL OF CORES- IF ANY

TWO TYPES OF PRESSURE DIE CASTING

COLD CHAMBERHEATING CHAMBER OUTSIDE THE MACHINE
- FOR Al, Mg, Cu, AND HIGH MELTING ALLOYS

HOT CHAMBERHEATING INTEGRAL WITH THE HANDLING

GOOSE NECK MECHANISMS WIDELY USED
FOR LOW MELTING ALLOYS- Zn, Pb, Etc.
ALSO VACUUM DIE CASTING MACHINES- SPACE
BETWEEN THE DIES AND PASSAGE VACUUMISED
BEFOR POURINGSUBMERGED PLUNGE TYPE, DIRECT AIR DIE
CASTING MACHINES

1
1

D.A.D.C. MACHINE showing two positions of pot

ANOTHER TYPE OF D.A.D.C. MACHINE

SQUEEZE CASTING
DEVELOPED IN 1960S (also called liquid forging)
SOLIDIFICATION OF MOLTEN METAL UNDER HIGH
PRESSURE (pressure application when liquid partially solidifies
70 to 140 MPa)
A COMBINATION OF CASTING & FORGING
DIE, PUNCH, EJECTOR PIN
PUNCH KEEPS ENTRAPPED GASES IN SOLUTION, RAPID
COOLING DUE TO HIGH PRESSURE DIE- METAL
INTERFACE
PARTS OF NEAR-NET SHAPE MADE, COMPLEX AND FINE
SURFACE DETAILS OBTAINED. No riser needed
FOR FERROUS & NON FERROUS
AUTOMOTIVE WHEELS, SHORT BARRELED CANNONS
ETC.

VACUUM DIE CASTING MACHINES

SOME AIR ENTRAPPED IN ORDINARY DIE CASTING MACHINES

THIS PRODUCES BLOW HOLES
IN VACUUM DIE CASTING TYPE, VACUUM PUMP CREATES VACUUM
IN DIE CAVITY, A SEAL CUTS OFF THE PIPE CONNECTION AFTER
EVACUATING
THIS PREVENTS FLOW OF METAL FROM DIE TO VACUUM PIPE
FLOW OF MOLTEN QUICK AND AUTOMATIC

FINISHES:

ALL DIE CASTINGS SUSCEPTIBLE TO CORROSION, HENCE

SUBJECTED TO FINISHING OPERATIONS OR PLATING

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
USE OF RIBS, HUBS, BOSSES MUST BE TO REDUCE WEIGHT,
STRENGTHEN THE PART, IMPROVE THE APPEARANCE
THICK SECTIONS MAKE DIE HOTTER AND THUS LESSEN
DIE LIFE
LARGE SECTIONS TO BE COOLED MAY CAUSE POROSITY
EXCESSIVE SECTIONAL CHANGES TO BE AVOIDED
AVOID UNDERCUTS
FILLETS DESIRABLE OVER SHARP EDGES
DRAFTS NEEDED ON ALL CASTINGS
EJECTOR PINS AT BACK TO AVOID VISIBILITY OF MARKS
FLASH NECESSARY , TO BE REMOVED LATER BY
TRIMMING
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DIE MATERIALS
CASTING ALLOYS

DIE MATERIAL

TIN, LEAD ALLOY CAST STEEL WITHOUT HEAT

TREATMENT

ZINC, Al

HEAT TREATED LOW ALLOY STEEL

COPPER BASE
ALLOYS

HEAT TREATED SPECIAL ALLOY

STEEL
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DIE CASTING ALLOYS

MAINLY NON-FERROUS CASTINGS WITH
PROPERTIES COMPARABLE WITH FORGINGS

ZINC ALLOYS:- WIDELY USED ( 70%)- Al 4.1%; Cu

MAX 1%, Mg 0.4%; BALANCE ZINC

-- PERMITS LONGER DIE LIFE, SINCE TEMP. IS LOW
GOOD STRENGTH, Tensile Strength: 300 Kg/cm 2
VERY GOOD FLUIDITY, THUS THIN SECTIONS POSSIBLE
USES:
USES AUTOMOBILES, OIL BURNERS, FRIDGES, RADIO, TV
COMPONENTS, MACHINE TOOLS, OFFICE MACHINERIES

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ALUMINIUM ALLOYS:
BY COLD CHAMBER PROCESS Cu 3 to 3.5%, Si 5 to 11 %, BALANCE Al.
LIGHTEST ALLOYS, GOOD CORROSION
RESISTANCE, FINE GRAINED STRUCTURE
DUE TO CHILLING EFFECT
Tensile Strength: 1250 to 2500 Kg/cm2
GOOD MACHINABILITY, SURFACE FINISH
USES:
USES MACHINE PARTS, AUTOMOTIVE,
HOUSE HOLD APPLIANCES ETC.
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COPPER BASED ALLOYS:

Cu 57 to 81%;Zn 15 to 40%; SMALL QUANTITIES
OF Si, Pb, Sn
VERY HIGH TENSILE STRENGTH: 3700 to
6700Kg/cm2;
GOOD CORROSION RESISTANCE; WEAR
RESISTANCE
LOW FLUIDITY, HENCE REDUCED DIE LIFE
USES;
USES ELECTRICAL MACHINERY PARTS,
SMALLGEARS, MARINE, AUTOMOTIVE AND AIR
CRAFT FITTINGS, HARDWARES
NITC

MAGNESIUM BASED ALLOYS:

LIGHTEST IN DIE CASTING, PRODUCTION COST SLIGHTLY
HIGH, Al: 9%; Zn: 0.5%; Mn: 0.5%; Si: 0.5%, Cu:0.3%;
REMAINING Mg.
USES:
USES IN AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY, MOTOR & ISTRUMENT PARTS,
PORTABLE TOOLS, HOUSE HOLD APPLIANCES

LEAD & TIN BASED ALLOYS;

Lead base: 80% Pb
& ; Tin base 75% tin,
antimony, copper
LIMITED APPLICATIONS. LIGHT DUTY BEARINGS, BATTERY
PARTS, X-RAY SHIELDS, LOW COST JEWELLERY, NONCORROSIVE APPLICATIONS

NITC

V-Process

1. Pattern (with vent holes) is placed on hollow carrier

plate.
2. A heater softens the .003" to .007" plastic film.
Plastic has good elasticity and high plastic deformation
ratio.
3. Softened film drapes over the pattern with 300 to
600 mm Hg vacuum acting through the pattern vents
to draw it tightly around pattern.
4. Flask is placed on the film-coated pattern. Flask
walls are also a vacuum chamber with outlet shown.
5. Flask is filled with fine, dry unbonded sand. Slight
vibration compacts sand to maximum bulk density.
6. Sprue cup is formed and the mold surface leveled.
The back of the mold is covered with unheated plastic
film.
7. Vacuum is applied to flask. Atmospheric pressure
then hardens the sand. When the vacuum is released
on the pattern carrier plate, the mold strips easily.
8. Cope and drag assembly form a plastic-lined cavity.
During pouring, molds are kept under vacuum.
9. After cooling, the vacuum is released and freeflowing sand drops away leaving a clean casting, with
no sand lumps. Sand is cooled for reuse.

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Benefits Of Using The V-Process:

Very Smooth Surface Finish

125-150 RMS is the norm. Cast surface of 200 or better, based on The Aluminum Association
of America STD AA-C5-E18.
Excellent Dimensional Accuracy
Typically +/-.010 up to 1 inch plus +/-.002 per additional inch. Certain details can be held
closer.
+/-.010 across the parting line.
Cored areas may require additional tolerances.
Zero Draft
Eliminates the need for machining off draft to provide clearance for mating parts and
assembly.
Provides consistent wall thickness for weight reduction and aesthetic appeal.
Allows for simple fixturing for machining and inspection.

NITC

Pattern construction becomes more accurate and efficient.

Total tolerance range becomes more accurate and efficient.
Geometry/tolerance of part is at its simplest form. Draft does not use up
tolerance.
Design/drafting is less complex. Calculations and depictions related to draft are
eliminated.
Thin Wall Sections
Walls as low as .100 in some applications are possible.
Excellent Reproduction Of Details
Very small features and lettering are possible.
Consistent Quality
All molding is semi-automatic. Variable "human factor" has been reduced.
Superior Machining
Sound metal and no hidden sand in the castings means fewer setups, reduced
scrap and longer tool life.
Low Tooling Costs

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All patterns are made from epoxy, machined plastics, SLA or LDM. There
is no need to retool for production quantities.
Unlimited Pattern Life
Patterns are protected by plastic film during each sand molding cycle.
Easy Revisions To Patterns
No metal tooling to weld or mill. Great for prototypes.
Short-Run Production Capability
Excellent for short-run production while waiting for hard tooling. The VPROCESS method can outproduce traditional prototype methods such as
plaster or investment castings.
Fast Turnaround

From placement of order to sample casting in as little as two to four weeks.

NITC

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
AN OVERVIEW
Known for several hundred years.
But its evolution into a sophisticated production method for other
than simple shapes has taken place only in this century.
Today, very high quality castings of considerable complexity are
produced using this technique.

NITC

To make a centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a

spinning mold.

The mold may be oriented horizontally or vertically, depending on

the casting's aspect ratio.

Short, square products are cast vertically while long tubular

shapes are cast horizontally. In either case, centrifugal force holds
the molten metal against the mold wall until it solidifies.

Carefully weighed charges ensure that just enough metal freezes

in the mold to yield the desired wall thickness.

In some cases, dissimilar alloys can be cast sequentially to produce

a composite structure.

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CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
TRUEC.I. PIPES, LINERS, BUSHES, CYLINDER BARRELS
ETC.

SEMICENTRE CORE FOR INNER SURFACESHAPE BY MOULD AND CORE,

MAINLY NOT BY CENRTRIFUGAL ACTIONEg:FLYWHEELS
PRESSURE OR CENTRIFUGAL CASTING-

ALSO TERMED AS CENTRIFUGING

FOR NON SYMMETRICAL SHAPES
MOULD WITH ANY SHAPE PLACED
AT CERTAIN DISTANCE FROM AXIS

 SEMI CENTRE CORE FOR INNER SURFACESHAPE BY MOULD AND CORE,

MAINLY NOT BY CENRTRIFUGAL ACTIONEg:FLYWHEELS
SPEED OF ROTATION-

60 TO 70 TIMES GRAVITY FOR HORIZONTAL AND

INCLINED TYPES
ABOVE 100 FOR VERTICAL TYPES.

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CENTRIFUGING
PROPERTIES OF CASTING DEPEND ON
DISTANCE FROM AXIS

SQUEEZE CASTING
DIE, PUNCH, EJECTOR PIN
PARTS OF NEAR-NET SHAPE MADE,
COMPLEX AND FINE
SURFACE DETAILS OBTAINED
FOR FERROUS & NON FERROUS

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
+ points:
Denser structure, cleaner, foreign elements
segregated (inner surface)
Mass production with less rejection
Runners, risers, cores avoided
Improved mechanical properties
Closer dimensions possible, less machining
Thinner sections possible
Any metal can be cast
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- points:
- Only for cylindrical and annular parts with limited
range of sizes
- High initial cost
- Skilled labour needed
- Too high speed leads to surface cracks- (high
stresses in the mould )

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For copper alloy castings, moulds are usually made from carbon
steel coated with a suitable refractory mold wash.

Molds can be costly if ordered to custom dimensions, but the

larger centrifugal foundries maintain sizeable stocks of molds in
diameters ranging from a few centimetres to several metres.

The inherent quality of centrifugal castings is based on the fact

that most nonmetallic impurities in castings are less dense than
the metal itself. Centrifugal force causes impurities (dross, oxides)
to concentrate at the casting's inner surface. This is usually
machined away, leaving only clean metal in the finished product.

Because freezing is rapid and completely directional, centrifugal

castings are inherently sound and pressure tight.

Mechanical properties can be somewhat higher than those of

statically cast products.
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Centrifugal castings are made in sizes ranging from

approximately 50 mm to 4 m in diameter and from a few
inches to many yards in length.

Size limitations, if any, are likely as not based on the

foundry's melt shop capacity.

Simple-shaped centrifugal castings are used for items such

as pipe flanges and valve components, while complex
shapes can be cast by using cores and shaped molds.

Pressure-retaining centrifugal castings have been found to

be mechanically equivalent to more costly forgings and
extrusions.

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NITC

INVESTMENT CASTING
Also called LOST WAX PROCESS

Die for casting wax pattern made with

allowances for wax and metal.
Pattern and gating systems made of
wax (bee wax, aera wax, paraffin) or
plastic (polystyrene) by injecting -in
molten condition - into the metal die
PRECOATING- The pattern dipped
in a slurry of refractory material (fine
325 mesh silica &binders, water, ethyl
silicate, acids), and sprinkled with
silica sand
This pattern with initial coating dried,
coated repeatedly to increase
thickness

- used during 4000-3000 BC

The one piece mould is dried

DEWAXING- Inverted and
heated to 900C -1750 C for 12
hours
Wax melts. Can be reclaimed
and reused.
Mould fired to 6500C-10500C
for about 4 hours
POURING- Metal poured,
allowed to solidify
Mould broken, casting taken
out

INVESTMENT CASTING- SEQUENCES

Plus and Minus points

Very good dimensional
accuracy
No or very little finishing
Intricate and thin shapes
possible
About 40 kg parts cast
Both for ferrous and
nonferrous alloys
Suited for mechanization

Careful handling
needed,as the patterns are
not strong.
Close control of process
needed
Labour and material costs
high, but high melting
point alloys cast with good
surface finish & close
tolerances.
Eg: gears, cams, valves,
ratchets, turbine blades,
electrical & electronic
components etc.

INTRODUCTION
Investment casting, often called lost wax casting, is
regarded as a precision casting process to fabricate nearnet-shaped metal parts from almost any alloy. Although its
history lies to a great extent in the production of art, the
most common use of investment casting in more recent
history has been the production of components requiring
complex, often thin-wall castings. A complete description of
the process is complex. But, the sequential steps of the
investment casting process are as below, with emphasis on
casting from rapid prototyping patterns.
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Fig: 1- Investment casting process

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 The investment casting process begins with fabrication of a

sacrificial pattern with the same basic geometrical shape as
the finished cast part
Patterns are normally made of investment casting wax that
is injected into a metal wax injection die. Fabricating the
injection die is a costlier process and can require several
months of lead time.
Once a wax pattern is produced, it is assembled with other
wax components to form a metal delivery system, called
the gate and runner system. The entire wax assembly is
then dipped in a ceramic slurry, covered with a sand
stucco, and allowed to dry. The dipping and stuccoing
process is repeated until a shell of ~6-8 mm (1/4-3/8 in) is
applied.
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Fig. 2- Investment casting process - dewaxing

NITC

 Once the ceramic has dried, the entire assembly is placed in a

steam autoclave to remove most of the wax.

After autoclaving, the remaining amount of wax that soaked

into the ceramic shell is burned out in a furnace. At this point,
all of the residual pattern and gating material is removed, and
the ceramic mold remains.

The mold is then preheated to a specific temperature and filled

with molten metal, creating the metal casting. Once the casting
has cooled sufficiently, the mold shell is chipped away from the
casting.
Next, the gates and runners are cut from the casting, and final
post-processing (sandblasting, machining) is done to finish the
casting.
(The CAD solid model, the shell, and the pattern produced in the QuickCast
process is schematically shown)
NITC

Fig. 3. Investment casting process Preheating and pouring

NITC

SHELL MOULDING-DEVELOPED IN 1940s

THERMOSETTING RESINS
USED AS BINDERS

PHENOL
FORMALDEHYDE(3% BY
WT.OF SAND)

15% HEXAMETHYLENE
TETRAMINE ADDED TO
GIVE THERMOSETTING

PROPERTY
RESIN SETS AT ABOUT 2500 C
(1750 C- 3700 C)

SHELL OF 4 to 9 MM FORMS
SHELL MOULDING MACHINES
USED

PATTERN MADE OF METAL

MOUNTED ON MATCH PLATES
WITH GUIDE PINS

PATTERN HEATED TO 2500 C

CLEANED WITH COMPRESSED
AIR, PETROLEUM SPIRIT
APPLIED
PATTERN INVERTED, PLACED
IN DUMP BOX CONTAINING
SAND MIX , LOCKED
DUMP BOX INVERTED, KEPT
FOR A FEW MINUTES, (1-3 MINS)
SHELL FORMS
RE-INVERTED, SHELL FORMED
IS TRIMMED, REMOVED USING
GUIDE PIN EJECTION,
ANOTHER HALF ASSEMBLED,
READY FOR POURING

SHELL MOULDING - SEQUENCES

+ AND - POINTS
Advantages

Least moulding material

(about 5%)

Quick operating cycle

( <5 minutes)

Ready for pouring

Excellent surface finish (inner

surface of shell smooth, less
resistance to flow of metal)

Dimensional tolerances superb

Very thin possible

Defects minimum

Good collapsibility

Any metal can be cast

Mechanisation of process

Disadvantages

Initial cost high

Metal patterns expensive

Binder expensive

Reclamation is difficult

Even though 100 kg possible,

generally limited to 10 kg
------------------------------------------When production runs high, cost of
pattern and cost of resin can be
compensated
Reduced cleaning, machining and
finishing are added advantages
Small mechanical parts gear housings,
cylinder heads, cylinders,
connecting rods etc made by
SHELL MOULDING

V-Process

1. Pattern (with vent holes) is placed on hollow carrier

plate.
2. A heater softens the .003" to .007" plastic film.
Plastic has good elasticity and high plastic deformation
ratio.
3. Softened film drapes over the pattern with 300 to
600 mm Hg vacuum acting through the pattern vents
to draw it tightly around pattern.
4. Flask is placed on the film-coated pattern. Flask
walls are also a vacuum chamber with outlet shown.
5. Flask is filled with fine, dry unbonded sand. Slight
vibration compacts sand to maximum bulk density.
6. Sprue cup is formed and the mold surface leveled.
The back of the mold is covered with unheated plastic
film.
7. Vacuum is applied to flask. Atmospheric pressure
then hardens the sand. When the vacuum is released
on the pattern carrier plate, the mold strips easily.
8. Cope and drag assembly form a plastic-lined cavity.
During pouring, molds are kept under vacuum.
9. After cooling, the vacuum is released and freeflowing sand drops away leaving a clean casting, with
no sand lumps. Sand is cooled for reuse.

NITC

Benefits Of Using The V-Process:

Very Smooth Surface Finish

125-150 RMS is the norm. Cast surface of 200 or better, based on The Aluminum Association
of America STD AA-C5-E18.
Excellent Dimensional Accuracy
Typically +/-.010 up to 1 inch plus +/-.002 per additional inch. Certain details can be held
closer.
+/-.010 across the parting line.
Cored areas may require additional tolerances.
Zero Draft
Eliminates the need for machining off draft to provide clearance for mating parts and
assembly.
Provides consistent wall thickness for weight reduction and aesthetic appeal.
Allows for simple fixturing for machining and inspection.

NITC

With wall thickness to 0.12 in., this casting

requires moderate strength, good stability
and resistance to stress-corrosion cracking
to 600F (316C).
This casting exhibits mechanical properties
at room temperature of 32-ksi tensile
strength, 24-ksi yield strength and 1.5%
elongation, while maintaining a 16-ksi
tensile strength and 4% elongation at 600F.
The component's as-cast surface finish
meets the customer's requirements, and
the invest casting process reduced the
customer's finishing and machining costs.

SEMI-PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

Semi-permanent mold is a casting process producing Aluminum alloy castings - using
re-usable metal molds and sand cores to
form internal passages within the
casting. Molds are typically arranged in two
halves - the sand cores being put into place
before the two halves are placed together.
The molten metal flows into the mold cavity
and surrounds the sand core while filling the
mold cavity. When the casting is removed
from the mold the sand core is removed
from the casting leaving an internal passage
in the casting.

The re-usable metal molds are used

time and again, but the sand cores
have to be replaced each time the
product is cast, hence the term semipermanent molding.
Semi-permanent molding affords a
very high precision quality to the
casting at a reduced price compared
to the sand casting processes.

NO BAKE CASTING

Filling a wood mold with

sand

The No-Bake Sand

Casting process consists
of sand molds created
using a wood, metal or
plastic pattern. Sand is
mixed with a urethane
binder and deposited into
a box containing the
pattern (and all necessary
formers and inserts) for
pouring.

PRODUCTS
15. TENSIONER PULLEY

Material: Gray iron

Process: Nobake sand
Casting Supplier: Wellsville Foundry, Wellsville, Ohio

This 175-lb component is used as a

brake that puts tension on a 4 ft. wide
roll of rubber feeding into a tire press.
Converted from a steel fabrication (two
ring burn-outs with spokes), the
foundry provided the end-user with a
50% cost savings.

Previously made from two steel stampings

welded together with two tube sections and
subsequently
tin-plated
for
corrosion
resistance (r), this bronze cast component (l)
now is a one-piece permanent mold casting.
The cast component (l) exhibits good
corrosion resistance (without plating or
painting), 50 ksi yield strength and 95 ksi
tensile strength.
By converting this part to a copper-based
permanent mold casting, the

CASTING TECHNIQUES FOR SINGLE

CRYSTAL GROWING (S.C.G.)
POLYCRYSTALLINE- ANISOTROPY
SINGLE CRYSTAL- PROPERTIES SAME IN
ALL DIRECTIONS
CASTING OF GAS TURBINE BLADES BY
S.C.G.

CASTING TECHNIQUES FOR SINGLE

CRYSTAL GROWING (S.C.G.)
CONVENTIONAL
USE OF CERAMIC MOULD
GRAINS WITH THE ABSENCE OF THERMAL
GRADIENT

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS

CERAMIC MOULD PREHEATED.
MOULD SUPPORTED BY WATER COOLED CHILL PLATES.
AFTER POURING, ASSEMBLY LOWERED
CRYSTALS GROW AT CHILL PLATE SURFACE UPWARD.
COLUMNAR GRAINS FORM

CONVENTIONAL
USE OF CERAMIC MOULD
GRAINS- AS WITH THE ABSENCE OF THERMAL
GRADIENT
PRESENCE OF GRAIN BOUNDARIES- MAKES
STRUCTURE SUSCEPTIBLE TO CREEP AND
CRACKING ALONG BOUNDARIES

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
PROCESS, (1960s)
CERAMIC MOULD PREHEATED.
MOULD SUPPORTED BY WATER COOLED CHILL
PLATES.
AFTER POURING, ASSEMBLY LOWERED
CRYSTALS GROW AT CHILL PLATE SURFACE
UPWARD. COLUMNAR GRAINS FORM
BLADE DIRECTIONALLY SOLIDIFIED WITH
LONGITUDINAL- NOT TRANSVERSE- GRAIN
BOUNDARIES. THUS STRONGER

SINGLE CRYSTAL BLADES, (1967),

MOULD HAS CONSTRICTION IN THE SHAPE OF CORK
SCREW
THIS CROSS SECTION ALLOWS ONLY ONE CRYSTAL
TO FIT THROUGH
WITH THE LOWERING, SINGLE CRYSTAL GROWS
UPWARD THROUGH CONSTRICTION
STRICT CONTROL OF MOVEMENT NEEDED
THERE IS LACK OF GRAIN BOUNDARIES, MAKES
RESISTANT TO CREEP AND THERMAL SHOCK.-EXPENSIVE

SINGLE CRYSTAL GROWING (S.C.G.)

FOR SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY

CRYSTAL PULLING METHOD-

CZOCHRALSKI PROCESS
SEED CRYSTAL DIPPED INTO THE MOLTEN
METAL, PULLED SLOWLY, (AT 10 m/ s), WITH
ROTATION
LIQUID METAL SOLIDIFIES ON THE SEED AND
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE CONTINUED
THROUGHOUT

FLOATING ZONE METHOD

POLYCRYSTALLINE ROD (SILICON)- ALLOWED
TO REST ON A SINGLE CRYSTAL
INDUCTION COIL HEATS THE PIECES
COIL MOVED UPWARD SLOWLY (20 m/ s)
SINGLE CRYSTAL GROWS UPWARD WITH
ORIENTATION MAINTAINED
THIN WAFERS CUT FROM ROD, CLEANED,
POLISHED
USE IN MICROELECTRONIC DEVICES

PLASTER MOULD CASTING

For casting silver, gold, Al, Mg, Cu, and alloys of brass and
bronze.
Plaster of Paris (Gypsum) (CaSo4.nH2O) used for cope and drag
moulding
A Slurry of 100 parts metal casting plaster and 160 parts water
used.
Plaster added to water and not water to plaster. To prevent cracks,
20-30% talc added to plaster. Lime and cement to control expansion
Stirred slowly to form cream Poured carefully over a match plate
pattern (of metal)
Mould vibrated to allow plaster to fill all cavities.
Initial setting at room temperature(setting time reduced by either
heating or by use of terra-alba/ magnesium oxide)
Pattern removed
Cope and drag dried in ovens at 200- 425 C(about 20 hours)
Mould sections assembled

+ points
Dimensional accuracy 0.008 t0 0.01 mm per mm
Excellent surface finish as no sand used.. No further
machining or grinding
Non ferrous thin sectioned intricate castings made.

- points
Limited to non ferrous castings.(sulphur in gypsum
reacts with ferrous metals at high temperatures)
Very low permeability as metal moulds used. Moulds
not permanent, destroyed when castings removed.

FROZEN MERCURY MOULDING

(MERCAST PROCESS)

Frozen Mercury used for producing precision castings

Metal mould prepared to the shape with gates and sprue holes
Placed in cold bath and filled with acetone (to act as lubricant)
Mercury poured into it, freezes at 20 C, after a few minutes
(10mins)
Mercury Pattern removed and dipped in cold ceramic slurry
bath.
A shell of 3 mm is built up. Mercury is melted and removed at
room temperature.
Shell dried and heated at high temperature to form hard
permeable shape.
Shell placed in flask- surrounded by sand-, preheated and
filled with metal.
Solidified castings removed.

 For both ferrous and non ferrous castings.(melting

temperature upto 16500C)
Very accurate details obtained in intricate shapes
Excellent surface finish, machining and cleaning
costs minimum.
Accuracy of 0.002 mm per mm obtained.
But, casting process costly.
Casting cost high.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
CAREFUL CONTROL OF LARGE NUMBER OF
VARIABLES NEEDED
CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS & ALLOYS
CAST

METHOD OF CASTING

MOULD AND DIE MATERIALS

MOULD DESIGN

PROCESS PARAMETERS- POURING,

TEMPERATURE,

GATING SYSTEM

RATE OF COOLING Etc.Etc.

NITC

 Poor casting practices, lack of control of process

variables- DEFECTIVE CASTINGS
TO AVOID DEFECTS Basic economic factors relevant to casting
operations to be studied.
General guidelines applied for all types of castings
to be studied.

NITC

CORNERS, ANGLES AND SECTION THICKNESS

Sharp corners, angles, fillets to be avoided
Cause cracking and tearing during solidification
Fillet radii selection to ensure proper liquid metal flow3mm to 25 mm.
Too large- volume large & rate of cooling less
Location with largest circle inscribed critical.
Cooling rate less
shrinkage cavities & porosities resultCalled HOT SPOTS

NITC

 LARGE FLAT AREAS TO BE AVOIDED

WARPING DUE TO TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS

ALLOWANCES FOR SHRINKAGE TO BE PROVIDED
PARTING LINE TO BE ALONG A FLAT PLANEGOOD AT CORNERS OR EDGES OF CASTING
DRAFT TO BE PROVIDED
PERMISSIBLE TOLERANCES TO BE USED
MACHINING ALLOWANCES TO BE MADE
RESIDUAL STRESSES TO BE AVOIDED
ALL THESE FOR EXPENDABLE MOULD CASTINGS.

NITC

 DESIGN MODIFICATIONS TO AVOID DEFECTS

AVOID SHARP CORNERS

MAINTAIN UNIFORM CROSS SECTIONS
AVOID SHRINKAGE CAVITIES
USE CHILLS TO INCREASE THE RATE OF COOLING
STAGGER INTERSECTING REGIONS FOR
UNIFORM CROSS SECTIONS
REDESIGN BY MAKING PARTING LINE STRAIGHT
AVOID THE USE OF CORES, IF POSSIBLE
MAINTAIN SECTION THICKNESS UNIFORMITY
BY REDESIGNING (in die cast products)

NITC

PROPERTIES AND TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF

CAST IRONS, NON FERROUS ALLOYS etc.
Tables shall be supplied

NITC

General Cost Characteristics of

Casting Processes
PROCESS

COST
DIE

SAND

EQUIPMENT

LABOUR

PRODUCTION
RATE (pc/hr)

L-M

<20

SHELL

L-M

M-H

L-M

<50

PLASTER

L-M

M-H

<10

INVESTMENT

M-H

L-M

<1000

PERMANENT
MOULD

L-M

<60

DIE

L-M

<200

CENTRIFUGAL

L-M

<50 NITC

THIXOTROPIC DIE
CASTING
Some of the die-cast joints used in the Insight's aluminum
body are made using a newly developed casting technology
invented by Honda engineers, called Thixotropic Die
Casting.
Thixotropic Die Casting uses aluminum alloy that has been NITC

However, Thixotropic Die Casting requires less energy for

smelting (an important consideration since aluminum is more
expensive than steel), and owes much of its strength to the
controlled formation of discrete aluminum crystals within the
metal casting.
Thixotropic casting involves vibratory casting of highly
thixotropic slips of very high solids loadings that are fluid only
under vibration, using porous or nonporous molds.
It is quite different from other conventional and new methods
for solid casting ceramics, including vibroforming,
vibraforming, in situ flocculation, direct coagulation casting,
NITC
and gel casting.

Table 1. Thixotropic casting in comparison with the alternatives.

Casting Method and Major Features

Vibroforming Requires a cement for

setting
Vibraforming Requires excess counter
ions and centrifugation for settling

Differentiating Properties of Thixotropic

Casting
Cement is not required for setting

Addition of organic deflocculant/binder

and vibration are the only necessary
steps

In situ flocculation requires the

addition of urea and heating to control
the pH to the isoelectric point

No urea additions, heating, control of

pH, or attainment of the isoelectric point
are required

Injection moulding required large

quantities (15-30wt%) of entraining
polymer and pressurized mould feeding

Only traces (<1%) of binder are needed

and no pressure needed for filling of
moulds
No enzyme additions or control of pH

Direct coagulation casting requires

control of the pH through an enzyme
catalysed decomposition reaction

are required

Gel casting requires use of a

neurotoxin to cause polymeric gelling

No polymer additive or polymerization

NITC
are required

Thixotropic casting is a little-known derivative of solid slip

casting, having reportedly been used in the refractories industry
in the early 1970's.
Since then, the refractories industry has since largely embraced
low-cement and ultra-low-cement castables.
It is also a suitable process for forming ceramic matrix
composites and metal-ceramic functionally gradient materials.
Thixotropic casting involves vibratory casting of highly
thixotropic slips of very high solids loadings that are fluid only
under vibration, using porous or nonporous molds.
It is quite different from other conventional and new methods
for solid casting ceramics, including vibroforming,
vibraforming, in situ flocculation, direct coagulation casting,
and gel casting.
(This is demonstrated in Table 1)
NITC

INSPECTION OF CASTINGS

SEVERAL METHODS
VISUAL
OPTICAL
- FOR SURFACE DEFECTS
SUBSURFACE AND INTERNAL DEFECTS
THROUGH NDTs & DTs
PRESSURE TIGHTNESS OF VALVES BY
SEALING THE OPENING AND
PRESSURISING WITH WATER
NITC

NDTs
Methods of testing
DestructiveNon destructiveRadiagraphic
Ultrasonic
NITC

Non Destructive Testing

with Ultrasonics
for flaw Detection in Castings,
Weldments, Rails, Forged Components etc.

NITC

INSPECTION OF CASTINGS

SEVERAL METHODS
VISUAL
OPTICAL
- FOR SURFACE DEFECTS
SUBSURFACE AND
INTERNAL DEFECTS
THROUGH

NDTs & DTs

PRESSURE TIGHTNESS OF
VALVES BY SEALING THE
OPENING AND
PRESSURISING WITH WATER

EXERCISE

PROCESS FLOW CHART

RECEIPT OF ORDER
(REVIEW)
ARE THE TERMS ACCEPTED? NO
COMMUNICATENEGOTIATE
YES
PREPARE WORK ORDER
WORK ORDER TO Q.C, INSPECTION, PLANNING, METHODS,
PRODUCTION AND DESPATCH

PRODUCTION PLAN
METHOD DRAWING, QA DATA, PATTERN PLAN
MOULDING
WORK ORDER, CORE MAKING, HEAT CONFORMATION
MELTING AND POURING
FOR THESE, LAB TEST REPORTS
KNOCK OUT
STAGE ISPECTION- NOT OK, REJECT
OK, SHOT BLASTING, GAS CUTTING/ARC CUTTING
ASTM STANDARDS

HEAT TREATMENT
ROUGH FETTLING, FINISH FETTLING,

INSPECTION

 NDT- CUSTOMER REPORT, NOT OK,

WELDING & RECTIFICATION

WELDING LOG SHEET

RE-INSPECTION, NOT OKREJECT
MACHINE - IF REQUIRED
STRESS RELIEF
HYDRAULIC TESTS Etc.
TEST CERTIFICATE DESPATCH
DOCUMENTS, PACKING, Etc. Etc.