Prokaryotes

(AKA Bacteria)
Domains Bacteria
&
Archaebacteria
Chapter 27

What should we already know about

prokaryotes/bacteria?
one-celled prokaryotes
dominant form of life on Earth
incredibly diverse
Single circular chromosome
Prokaryote
haploid
naked DNA
no histone proteins double helix
reproduce asexually
~4 million base pairs
mitosis/ binary fission
~4300 genes
offspring genetically identical to parent
Eukaryote
1/1000 DNA of eukaryote
rapid growth
generation every ~20 minutes
108 (100 million) colony overnight!

2 Bacteria DOMAINS
DOMAIN ARCHAEA
(Archaebacteria)
Live in harsh environments
LACK PEPTIDOGLYCAN in cell walls
More than one RNA polymerase
HISTONES associated with DNA
INTRONS in some genes
Resist antibiotics
EXAMPLES:
1) METHANOGENS
form CH4; require ANAEROBIC conditions
(bottom of pond, landfill, sewage)
2) HALOPHILES
salt loving; require extremes in salt
(> 10%)
3) THERMOACIDOPHILES

heat/acid loving; found in geothermal

springs high heat/low pH

DOMAIN BACTERIA
(Eubacteria)
Contain peptidoglycan
in cell wall
One type of RNA
polymerase
Lack introns in genome
No histones
Sensitive to antibiotics

Prokaryote Structure
Unicellular
3 Shapes:
1. Bacilli
2. Cocci
3. Spirilli

Size
1/10 size of eukaryote cell
1 micron (1um)
Internal structure
no internal compartments
no membrane-bound
organelles
only ribosomes
circular, naked DNA
not wrapped around
proteins

Prokaryote Cell Wall Structure

Gram-positive bacteria peptide side

chains

cell wall
peptidoglycan
plasma membrane

peptidoglycan = polysaccharides + amino acid chains

lipopolysaccharides = lipids + polysaccharides
Gram-negative bacteria
cell wall

outer
membrane
peptidoglycan
plasma
membrane

Thats important for

your doctor to know!

protein
outer membrane of
lipopolysaccharides

Prokaryotic metabolism
How do bacteria acquire their energy & nutrients?
photoautotrophs
photosynthetic bacteria

chemoautotrophs
oxidize inorganic compounds
nitrogen, sulfur, hydrogen

heterotrophs
live on plant & animal matter
decomposers & pathogens

OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS
Obligate aerobes
- require oxygen
Obligate anaerobes
- poisoned by oxygen
Facultative anaerobes
- Use cellular respiration if has O2
can do fermentation w/o oxygen

Where does variation come from?

1. Spontaneous Mutation
1 in every 200 bacteria has a mutation

2. Transformation (recombination)
Plasmids small supplemental circles of DNA

3. Transduction
4. Conjugation direct transfer of DNA
transposons
All allow for rapid dissemination of new phenotypes
within and between bacterial populations, allowing
for rapid evolution.

#1 - Spontaneous Mutation
Spontaneous mutation is a
significant source of variation
in rapidly reproducing species
Example: E. coli
human colon (large intestines)
2 x 1010 (billion) new E. coli each day!
spontaneous mutations
for 1 gene, only ~1 mutation in 10 million replications
each day, ~2,000 bacteria develop mutation in that gene
but consider all 4300 genes, then:
4300 x 2000 = 9 million mutations per day per human host!

# 2 - Transformation

Bacteria are opportunists

pick up naked foreign DNA wherever it

may be hanging out
have surface transport proteins that are specialized
for the uptake of naked DNA

import bits of chromosomes from other bacteria

incorporate the DNA bits into their own chromosome
express new genes via the alteration of a bacterial cells genotype
and thus phenotype
transformation
form of recombination

REMEMBER

Plasmids
Small supplemental circles of DNA
5000 - 20,000 base pairs
self-replicating

carry extra genes

2-30 genes
genes for antibiotic resistance

can be exchanged between bacteria

bacterial sex!!
rapid evolution

can be imported from

environment

Plasmids & Antibiotic Resistance

Resistance is futile?
1st recognized in 1950s in Japan
bacterial dysentery not
REMEMBER:
responding to antibiotics
worldwide problem now

Genes for antibiotic resistance

= R plasmids

resistant genes are on plasmids

that are swapped between bacteria
R plasmids also have genes that
encode for sex pili, they can be
transferred from one cell to another
by conjugation

Role in rapid evolution

Method for spreading antibiotic
resistance

# 3 - Transduction
Phages/viruses carry bacterial
genes from one host cell to
another
Two types:
1. generalized transduction, a small piece of the host
cells degraded DNA is packaged within a capsid,
rather than the phage genome
2. Specialized transduction occurs via a temperate
VIDEO: Transduction
phage

# 4 Conjugation
AKA: Bacteria Sex
Direct, 1 way, transfer of DNA between 2 bacterial cells that
are temporarily joined
results from presence of F (fertility) plasmid
male (= donor = F+) extends sex pilli and attaches to
female (= receiver = F-) bacterium
cytoplasmic bridge allows transfer of DNA

* built-in F factor is
called an Hfr cell
(high frequency
of recombination)

VIDEO: Conjugation

Transposons
(Transposable elements = Jumping genes)
a piece of DNA that can move from one location to
another in a cells genome = transposon
target site may be within the chromosome,
from a plasmid to chromosome (or vice
versa),
or between plasmids
contribute to genetic shuffling in bacteria
can bring multiple copies for antibiotic
resistance into a single R plasmid by
moving genes to that location from
1st described by
different plasmids
Barbara McClintock
VIDEO: Jumping Genes

in corn

Insertion Sequences & Transposons

insertion sequences:
simplest transposable elements
exist only in bacteria
consists of the transposase gene (an enzyme catalyzing
movement of the insertion sequence from one site to
another within the genome), flanked
by
a pair of inverted repeat sequences

Transposons:
longer and more complex than
insertion sequences
have extra genes that go along for
the ride, such as genes for
antibiotic resistance

Bacteria as pathogens

Disease-causing microbes
plant diseases
wilts, fruit rot, blights

animal diseases

tooth decay, ulcers

anthrax, botulism
plague, leprosy, flesh-eating disease
STDs: gonorrhea, chlamydia
typhoid, cholera
TB, pneumonia
lyme disease

Discovery Video: Antibiotics

Antibiotics can kill bacteria by inhibiting enzyme
or processes specific to bacteria are powerless
again viruses, which have few or no enzymes of
their own.

Bacteria as beneficial (& necessary)

Life on Earth is dependent on bacteria
decomposers
recycling of nutrients from dead to living

nitrogen fixation
only organisms that can fix N from atmosphere
needed for synthesis of proteins & nucleic acids
plant root nodules

help in digestion (E. coli)

digest cellulose for herbivores
cellulase enzyme
produce vitamins K & B12
for humans

produce foods & medicines

from yogurt to insulin