Theories of Motivation

I Semester MBA

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Motivation
Motivation refers to forces within an

individual that account for the level,

direction, and persistence of effort
expended at work.
Direction an individuals choice when

presented with a number of possible

alternatives.
Level the amount of effort a person puts

forth.
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Persistence theNITK
length
of time a person

 Motivation and individual needs

Motivationthe forces within the individual that

account for the level, direction, and persistence of

effort expended at work.
Needs
Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of
an individual.
Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.
Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.
Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need
satisfaction.
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Theories of Motivation

Instinctmotives are innate

Drivebiological needs as motivation
Incentiveextrinsic things push or pull behavior
Arousalpeople are motivated to maintain
optimum level of arousal
Humanistichierarchy of needs
Competence - demonstrating competence and
exercising control in a situation
Achievement directed toward excelling,
succeeding, or outperforming others at some task
Self-Determination Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation
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Instinct Theory
Emerging in the late 1800s, instinct theories contended
that certain human behaviors are innate and due to
evolutionary programming
A complex, inherited, unlearned behavior that is
rigidly patterned throughout a species
Animals display automatic and innate behavior
patterns called fixed action patterns to
environmental stimuli
William James listed 37 instincts.
Criticism: Instinct theories merely describe and label
behaviors rather than actually explaining them.

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Drives
Beginning in the 1920s
Organism feels tension created by
imbalances
Pushes an organism to restore the
balance, typically reducing the drive
and restoring homeostasis
Part of drive-reduction theory

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Drive-Reduction Theory
The idea that a physiological need creates
an aroused tension state (a drive) that
motivates an organism to satisfy the need
Eating and drinking are examples of drivereducing behaviors.
If you are cold, you would be driven to put
on a coat to warm-up. If you shiver, that
would be an instinctual behavior.
Criticism: Cant explain why people often
engage in behaviors that serve to increase
tension and physiological arousal
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Drives as Tissue Needs

Homeostasisthe constancy of internal
conditions that the body must actively maintain
Drives may be due to an upset in homeostasis,
inducing behavior to correct the imbalance
Animals do behave in accordance with their
tissue needs (e.g., increasing or decreasing
caloric intake, drive for salt)
However, homeostasis cannot explain all drives

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Incentive Theory
Behavior motivated by the pull of external goals, such
as rewards, money and recognition.
Drew heavily from well-established learning principles,
such as reinforcement, and the work of learning
theorists, such as Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Tolman.
Tolman also stressed the importance of cognitive factors
in learning and motivation, especially the expectation
that a particular behavior will lead to a particular goal.
Criticism: Fails to explain behaviors that are not
primarily motivated by any kind of external
incentive
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Arousal Theory
Levels of alertness and
responsiveness
People are motivated to maintain an
optimum level of arousalneither
too
high nor too low
Curiosity motivehelps us
understand
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Sensation Seeking
A person high in sensation seeking
tends to look for exciting (and
sometimes risky) activities

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Categories of motivation theories.

Categories of motivation theories.
Content theories.
Focus on profiling the needs that people

seek to fulfill.
Process theories.
Focus on peoples thought or cognitive

processes.
Reinforcement theories.
Emphasize controlling behavior by

manipulating its consequences.

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What do the content theories suggest

about individual needs and motivation?
Content theories.
Motivation results from the individuals
attempts to satisfy needs.
Major content theories.
Hierarchy of needs theory.
ERG theory.
Acquired needs theory.
Two-factor theory.

Each theory offers a slightly different view.

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Theory of Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow defined human needs as:

Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from
pain.
Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; the
security from threatening events or surroundings.
Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship,
affiliation, interaction, and love.
Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others.
Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by maximizing the
use of abilities, skills, and potential
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Maslows Theory of Hierarchy of Needs

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Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslows hierarchy of

human needs.

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Assumptions
Maslows theory assumes that a person
attempts to satisfy the more basic needs
before directing behavior toward satisfying
upper-level needs.
Lower-order needs must be satisfied
before a higher-order need begins to
control a persons behavior.
A satisfied need ceases to motivate
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Alderfers ERG Theory

Clayton P Alderfer proposed a hierarchy
involving three sets of needs:
Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as
food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.
Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful
social and interpersonal relationships.
Growth: needs satisfied by an individual
making creative or productive contributions.
Tested by Thematic Apperception Test
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 Examples of Thematic Apperception T

est

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Chris Argyris
Influenced by the humanist approach of
Abraham Maslow and the socio-technical
process of E. Wight Bakke.
Indicated his feelings about how
organizations neglected human needs.
If treated like a child one will behave like a
child result is organizational mediocrity

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Chris Argyris
Personality vs. Organization
Certain organizational practices, such as the
division of labor, interfere with the development of
healthy human personalities.
These practices promote immature, not mature
behavior.
In an attempt to self-actualize, individuals run into
the obstacles posed by formal organizations.
The result is defensive behaviors, with
management reacting by becoming more autocratic
or by turning to sugar-coated human relations.
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Chris Argyris

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Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura proposed a social cognitive theory (social
learning theory; self-efficacy theory) which refers to an
individuals belief that they are capable of performing a task.
Four ways self efficacy can be increased:
1. Enactive mastery if youve performed task in the past, you
can do it again
2. Vicarious modeling you become more confident because
you see someone else do the task
3. Verbal persuasion you become more confident because
someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary
to perform task
4. Arousal if you get psyched up then you perform better
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David McClellands Theory of Needs or

Acquired Needs Theory
Need for Achievement (nAch) drive to
excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards
Need for Affiliation (nAff) the desire for
friendly and close interpersonal relationships
Need for Power (nPow) need to make
others behave in a way in which they would
not have behaved otherwise (to have power
over them)
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Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)

Taught psychology at MIT.
At Antioch College, McGregor found that
his classroom teaching of human relations
did not always work in practice.
From these experiences, his ideas evolve
and lead him to recognize the influence of
assumptions we make about people and
our managerial style.
Formulated Theory X and Theory Y
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Theory X

Management is responsible for organizing the elements of

productive enterprise money, materials, equipment, people
in the interest of economic ends.

With respect to people, this is a process of directing their

efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying
their behavior to fit the needs of the organization.

Without this active intervention by management, people would

be passive even resistant to organizational needs. They
must, therefore, be persuaded, rewarded, punished,
controlled their activities must be directed. This is
managements task -- in managing subordinate managers or
workers. We often sum it up by saying that management
consists of getting things done through other people.
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Theory X

Behind this conventional theory there are several

additional beliefs less explicit, but widespread:
The average man is by nature indolent he works
as little as possible.
He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to
be led.
He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to
organizational needs.
He is by nature resistant to change.
He is gullible, not very bright the ready dupe of the
charlatan and the demagogue.

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Theory Y
Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive
enterprise money, materials, equipment, people in the interest of
economic ends.
People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs.
They have become so as a result of experience in organizations.
The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for
assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior
toward organizational goals are all present in people.
Management does not put them there. It is a responsibility of
management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop
these human characteristics for themselves.
The essential task of management is to arrange organizational
conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their
own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational
objectives.

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Theory X

Theory Y

Work is inherently distasteful to

most people.

Work is as natural as play, if the

conditions are favorable.

Most people are not ambitious,

have little desire for responsibility,
and prefer to be directed.

Self-control is often indispensable in

achieving organizational goals.

Most people have little capacity for

creativity in solving organizational
problems.
Motivation occurs only at the
physiological and safety levels.
Most people must be closely
controlled and often coerced to
achieve organizational objectives.

The capacity for creativity in solving

organizational problems is widely
distributed in the population.
Motivation occurs at the social,
esteem, and self-actualization levels,
as well as physiological and security
levels.
People can be self-directed and
creative at work if properly motivated

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Frederick Herzbergs
Two Factor Theory
His research emphasized job enrichment (depth)
rather than job enlargement
Job context (hygiene factors) needed to be
optimal to prevent job dissatisfaction. These
factors (according to Herzberg) did not motivate.
Job content (motivators) factors that did lead to
motivation
Money (according to Herzberg) could motivate if it
was seen as a reward for accomplishment; but if
money was given without regard for merit, then it
was a hygiene factor.
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Motivation and Hygiene Factors

Motivators

Motivation and Hygiene

Factors

Achievement

Policies and
Administration

Recognition for
Accomplishment

Supervision

Challenging Work

Working Conditions

Increased
Responsibility

Interpersonal Relations
Money, Status, Security

Growth and
Development

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Herzbergs two-factor theory.

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Work Design
Richard Hackman, Edward Lawler, and Greg
Oldhams work extended Herzbergs
notions by adding a situational (it
depends) dimension
Key job characteristics
Depending on an individuals growthneed strength, these characteristics
could be amplified to make the job more
meaningful.
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Alternative approaches to job

design
Job.

A collection of tasks performed in support

of organizational objectives.
Job design.

The process of creating or defining jobs by

assigning specific work tasks to
individuals and groups.
Jobs should be designed so that both
performance and satisfaction result.
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Alternative approaches to job

design

Job rotation and job enlargement:

Expands job scope.

Job rotation.
Increases task variety by periodically
shifting workers among jobs involving
different task assignments.
Job enlargement.
Increases task variety by combining
two or more tasks previously assigned
to separate workers.
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Horizontal loading.

Alternative approaches to job

design
Job enrichment.
Building more opportunities for
satisfaction into a job by expanding its
content.
Expands both job scope and job depth.
Frequently accomplished through
vertical loading.
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A continuum of job design alternatives.

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Core job characteristics

Skill variety.

Task identity.
Task significance.
Autonomy.
Feedback.

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Job design and individual work outcomes

using the core characteristics model.

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Alternative approaches to job

design
Improving core job characteristics:
Form natural units of work.
Combine tasks.
Establish client relationships.
Open feedback channels.
Practice vertical loading.

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Alternative approaches to job

design

Compressed workweek.
Flexible working hours.
Job sharing
Work sharing.
Telecommuting.

Hoteling.
Virtual offices.
Part-time work.
Contingency workers
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Process Theories - Expectancy Theory

The expectancy theory of Victor Vroom

helps explain the choosing process
among individuals in terms of the
value (valence) of the reward and the
expectancy of receiving the reward.

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Expectancy Theory (illustrated)

This process may be illustrated in the
following way:
Effort

Required
performance

Outcome
(eg. Promotion)

Force = Valence Expectancy

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Expectancy Theory
Force is strength of motivation.
Valence is strength of preference for
an outcome.
Expectancy is the level of belief that
changes in behaviour will achieve the
required outcome.

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Expectancy Theory
Motivation is a function of the relationship between:
effort expended and perceived level of performance
the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will
be related to performance.
There must also be the expectation that rewards are
available. These relationships
determine the strength of the motivational link.
the strength of the individuals preference for an
outcome
the belief in the likelihood that particular actions will
achieve the required goal
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Expectancy Theory
Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler
(Managerial Attitudes and Performance,
1968) extended Vrooms work with their
model of expectancy.
The model shows that the amount of effort
generated depends upon:
the value of the reward
the amount of effort seen to be necessary
the probability of receiving the reward
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Expectancy Theory (illustrated)

Skills,
abilities,
personality

Value of rewards

Performanc
e

Effort

Role
perception

Probability of
achieving
reward

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Elements in the expectancy theory

of motivation.

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Process Theories of Motivation:

Expectancy Theory (continued)
Management practices:
Managers need to focus on employee
expectations for success.
Managers must actively determine which
second-level outcomes are important to
employees.
Managers should link desired secondlevel outcomes to the organizations
performance goals.
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Equity Theory
Equity theory is not a new one but focuses
on how individuals perceive their reward
or pay compared to what others are
receiving.
Issues of social justice and distributive
justice are involved in the theories of
Stacy Adams and Elliot Jaques.

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Equity Theory (contd)

Employees compare their efforts and rewards with
those of others in similar work situations.
Individuals, who work in exchange for rewards
from the organization, are motivated by a desire to
be equitably treated at work.
Equity exists when employees perceive that the
ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes
(rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other
similar employees.
Inequity exists when these ratios are not
equivalent.
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Equity theory and the role of social

comparison.

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Equity theory

People respond to perceived

negative inequity by changing

Work inputs.
Rewards received.
Comparison points.
Situation.
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Managerial implications of equity theory

Underpaid people experience anger.
Overpaid people experience guilt.
Perceptions of rewards determine motivational

outcomes.
Negative consequences of equity comparisons
should be minimized, if not eliminated.
Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a
source of equity controversies in the
workplace.
Gender equity.
Comparable worth.
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Goal Setting Theory

Key issues and principles in the goalsetting process:
Set specific goals.
Set challenging goals.
Build goal acceptance and commitment.
Clarify goal priorities.
Provide feedback on goal
accomplishment.
Reward goal accomplishment.
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Goal-setting theory
Developed by Edwin Locke.
Properly set and well-managed task goals can
be highly motivating.
Motivational effects of task goals:
Provide direction to people in their work.
Clarify performance expectations.
Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
Provide a foundation for behavioral selfmanagement.
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Goal-setting theory
Participation in goal setting

unlocks the motivational potential of

goal setting.

management by objectives (MBO)

promotes participation.

when participation is not possible,

workers will respond positively if
supervisory trust and support exist.
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Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement
The administration of a consequence as

a result of a behavior.
Proper management of reinforcement

can change the direction, level, and

persistence of an individuals behavior.

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Reinforcement Theory
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory
Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of
external environmental consequences on
behavior.
Law of effect impact of type of consequence
on future behavior.
Operant conditioning:
Developed by B.F. Skinner.
Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences.
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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation

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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Law of effect.
Theoretical basis for manipulating

consequences of behavior.
Behavior that results in a pleasant

outcome is likely to be repeated while

behavior that results in an unpleasant
outcome is not likely to be repeated.

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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Operant conditioning strategies:
Positive reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior
through the contingent presentation of a
pleasant consequence.

Negative reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior
through the contingent removal of an
unpleasant consequence.
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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation

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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Organizational behavior modification

(OB Mod).

The systematic reinforcement of

desirable work behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of

unwanted work behavior.
Uses four basic strategies:

Positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement.
Punishment.
Extinction
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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Positive reinforcement.
The administration of positive

consequences to increase the

likelihood of repeating the desired
behavior in similar settings.
Rewards are not necessarily positive
reinforcers.
A reward is a positive reinforcer only
if the behavior improves.
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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Principles governing reinforcement.
Law of contingent reinforcement.
The reward must be delivered only if

the desired behavior is exhibited.

Law of immediate reinforcement.
The reward must be given as soon as

possible after the desired behavior is

exhibited.
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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Scheduling reinforcement.
Continuous reinforcement.
Administers a reward each time the
desired behavior occurs.
Intermittent reinforcement.
Rewards behavior periodically
either on the basis of time elapsed or
the number of desired behaviors
exhibited.
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Reinforcement theories linked to

motivation

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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Negative reinforcement.
Also known as avoidance.
The withdrawal of negative

consequences to increase the

likelihood of repeating the desired
behavior in a similar setting.
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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Punishment.
The administration of negative

consequences or the withdrawal of

positive consequences to reduce
the likelihood of repeating the
behavior in similar settings.
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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Implications of using punishment.
Punishing poor performance enhances

performance without affecting

satisfaction.
Arbitrary and capricious punishment

leads to poor performance and low

satisfaction.
Punishment may be offset by positive
reinforcement from another source.
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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Extinction.
The withdrawal of the reinforcing

consequences for a given behavior.

The behavior is not unlearned; it
simply is not exhibited.
The behavior will reappear if it is
reinforced again.

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Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total

quality management.

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Reinforcement theories linked to motivation

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Reinforcement theories linked

to motivation
Ethical issues with reinforcement usage.
Is improved performance really due to

reinforcement?
Is the use of reinforcement demeaning
and dehumanizing?
Will managers abuse their power by
exerting external control over behavior?
How can we ensure that the manipulation
of consequences is done in a positive and
constructive fashion?
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Last Thoughts
from Peter Drucker
I would hope that American managersindeed,
managers worldwidecontinue to appreciate what I
have been saying almost since day one: that
management is so much more than exercising rank
and privilege; its so much more than making deals.
Management affects people and their lives, both in
business and in many other aspects as well. The
practice of management deserves our utmost
attention; it deserves to be studied

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