Cropping System in the

Tropical Area
Eka Tarwaca Susila Putra
Laboratory of Crop Science
Faculty of Agriculture
Universitas Gadjah Mada

Cropping Systems
Monoculture (one crop)
Polyculture (many crops): multiple cropping
a) crops separated in time: crop rotation, cover crops
b) crops at same time: intercropping
c) combinations: relay cropping

Multiple Cropping

Multiple Cropping
Common in Tropics, example: 98% of corn
grown in Indonesia are intercropped(BPS,
2011)

Multiple Cropping
Also called Mixed Cropping = more than
one crop at same time
Multiple cropping vs monoculture --problems with mechanized systems

Types of Multiple Cropping

Mixtures of crops (no rows)
Alternate rows or strips
Relay cropping 2nd crop planted during life
cycle of first crop
Intercropping
Alley cropping
Agroforestry
Surjan system
Multistrata cropping

Row

Mixed

Alternate Row Spacings

Alternate row configurations have been of studied as
a means to improve yields by improving light and
water use efficiencies.
Karlen et al., (1985) reported 5 to 10% yield
increase from alternate rows.
Paszkiewicz (2002) summarized a series of
alternate row studies throughout the corn belt
and found:
Yield response to alternate rows ranged
from -1.6 to 7.6% compared to mixed
cropping.
Widdicombe and Thelen (2002) reported
18% yield increase when compared to
mono cropping
14% yield increase when compared to
mixed cropping

Light Interception
Paszkiewicz (2002)
Attributed advantages to increased light interception
in light limiting environments.

Andrade et al. (2002)

Clearly illustrated that yield increases occur in
alternate rows in response increased light interception

Alternate Row

Intercropping
A form of multiple cropping in which two or
more crops simultaneously occupy the
same field
The most common goal of intercropping is
to produce a greater yield on a given
piece of land by making use of resources
that would otherwise not be utilized by a
single crop

Relay Cropping
1. Planting seeds of a new crop among the
plants of a mature crop so they will have
a head start when the mature crop is
done
2. This is done so more crops per year can
be brought to maturity in the same
planting space
3. Similar to succession planting, but this is
done in the same space and usually with
different types of crops

Relay Cropping

Alley Cropping
A method of planting in which rows of a
crop are sown between rows or edges of
nitrogen-fixing plants, the roots of which
enrich the soil.
A method of planting in which rows of
trees are interspersed with rows of crops,
improving the soil and providing nutrients,
particularly nitrogen, to the crops

 Alley Cropping is an agroforestry practice where

agricultural or horticultural crops are grown in
the alleyways between widely spaced rows of
woody plants
Alley Cropping can diversify farm income,
increase crop production, improve landscape
aesthetics, enhance wildlife habitat and provide
protection and conservation benefits to crops
By combining annual and perennial crops that
yield mulitple products and profits at different
times, a landowner can use available space,
time and resources more effectively.

 There are unlimited planting combinations for

Alley Cropping systems.
Common examples in the Midwest include
wheat, corn, soybeans or hay planted in
between rows of black walnut or pecan trees.
Non-commodity or value-added crops may
be incorporated for extra income, including
sunflowers or medicinal herbs, planted in
between rows of nut or fruit trees alternated
with nursery stock trees or hazelnuts.

 Alley Cropping can be used for other purposes

such as short-rotation woody crops of fast
growing woody species that are combined with
forage or row crops to produce fuelwood and
fodder.
Plantings to enhance wildlife and pollinator
habitat also can be designed using appropriate
species.
Innovative landowners have developed a wide
variety of other Alley Cropping designs and crop
mixtures.
For example, various combinations of crop
comodities with niche markets.

Benefits of alley cropping

Diversification of income
Improved soil health: good option for areas prone to
erosion or in a degraded shape, especially when tree
and shrub rows are planted along contours. Woody roots
in Alley Cropping systems help reduce soil erosion,
increase water infiltration, add organic carbon to the soil,
recycle and add nutrients and improve nutrient retention
Improved crop health: tree and shrub canopies in an
Alley Cropping system protect the inter-crops against
wind damage and insect pests, moderate air and soil
temperature extremes, and reduce moisture loss from
the soil. Reducing wind effects also aids in pollination
activities by beneficial insects thus increasing yields of
some crops.

Surjan System
Multipurpose shrubs and trees grown on
raised bed strips with cash crops on lowlying areas

Multistrata Cropping
A multipurpose tree species interplanted with
vegetable, condiment or fruit crops species
Generally this system is practiced on land
where the farmers previously planted
seasonal cash crops
Characterized by high species diversity (five
to seven species per plot) and usually three
to four vertical canopy strata
Intimate plant associations

Agroforestry Effects of Trees:

Shield smaller shade-tolerant crops, vines
Stabilize temperatures
Permanent reservoirs for parasitoids &
predators
Slow decomposition of organic matter
Supply nutrients & mulch via leaf litter, etc.

Mechanisms

28

Agroforestry
semi-permanent trees + annual crops

30

32
Tea plantation in Western Kenya

Oil palm
plantation Malaysia

33

Crop Rotation and Cover Crops

Crop Rotation and Cover Crops

Crop rotation
Cover crops
Green manures
Intercropping
Tillage practices
Mulches and organic amendments

Caution: all of these may blend together to

various degrees in same cropping system

Crop Rotation
One crop per growing season may
rotate different crop each season.
Example: corn-soybean rotation in
alternate seasons
Occasional double crop
Part of the cropping system --- excellent
for pest management

Crop Rotation
Continuous crop sequences
Cash crops (economics often determines
crop sequence)
Cover crops (not primary crop)
Unintentional rotations:
Fallow variously defined = clean fallow, weed
fallow (erosion, etc.)
Weeds (increased diversity or source of pests?)

Benefits of Crop Rotation

Diversification of production
Effects on next crop:
1. Source of N
2. Pest management (especially less mobile
pests (nematodes, soilborne diseases)
Breaks cycle of pest
Some crops toxic to pests

Crop Rotation Sequences can be

Critical
Legume provides N often improves
yield of next crop
Corn uses up excess N can decrease
yield of next crop (high C:N can
immobilize N)
Sorghum possible allelochemical effects
on next crop
Herbicide residues could carry over into
next crop (e.g., corn soybean)

Specific Information Needed to do Crop

Rotation Example: Potato following
Legume or Sorghum
If no soilborne pests present:
Legume before potato
increased N
increased yield
Sorghum before potato possible decreased
yield
If certain soil insects (wireworms) present:
sorghum before potato
increased insect
damage
If nematodes present: legume before potato
increased nematode damage

Wireworm
Larva of Click Beetle

Grain Sorghum

Forage Sorghum
Often used in potato rotations

Potato following Legume or

Sorghum Rotation in Wonosobo
Legume

Sorghum

N addition

+++

---

OM addition

+++

Weed
management
Pests
encouraged

+++

Nematodes

Wireworms

Specific Information Needed to do Crop

Rotation Example: Potato following
Legume or Sorghum

Usual rotation is sorghum + N fertilizer

Suppresses nematodes
Suppresses weeds
Adds OM to soil
N fertilizer is added

Cover Crops
Lower value, not main cash crops
Usually grown in seasons less favorable
for cash crop production

Why grow low value cover crops?

Diversification of production for mixed farms
(forage, feed, etc.)
Useful when integrating
animals into farming system
Limit soil erosion
Benefits of crop rotation
Utilize excess fertilizer reduce pollution
Improve soil structure
Stabilize soil temperature reduce OM
breakdown
Improve soil fertility
adds OM

Reasons for Growing Cover Crops

Forage
Animal feed
Green manure
N management
Erosion control
Pest management
Etc.

Cover crops used as:

Rotation crops
Green manures
Ground covers in perennial orchards or
vineyards
Other (living mulch, overseeding, etc.
Intercropping)

LCC
Possible Groundcover or Living Mulch

Why use cover crops?

Cover crops are an important fertility
management tool available to organic farmers
Grown primarily for soil or ecosystem
improvement rather than cash
Can have negative consequences if managed
incorrectly or the wrong species are chosen.

Terminology
Confusion about the terms:
cover crop, green manure, and catch crop.

Frequently used interchangeably, but refer to

different primary functions:
Cover crop = used to prevent soil erosion by
covering soil with living plants
Green manure = turned under for soil improvement
Catch crop = used to catch nutrients left after harvest
of a cash crop and prevent leaching

Goal: Increase SOM and improve nutrient

availability
To build SOM look for a high biomass cover crop.
Possible options for fall planting include non-legumes
such as:
annual rye grass, cereal rye, triticale, legume/cereal mix,

High biomass legumes provide N and build SOM:

sub-clover or woollypod vetch

For summer planting options include:

sorghum/sudan grass, buckwheat
tropical legumes:
cowpea, crotolaria, pigeon pea, lablab bean,sesbania

Goal: Increase nutrient availability

Cover crops can increase nutrient availability by:
residue breakdown - releases nutrients into soil solution or
incorporated in soil microbes.
As a source of readily available C cover crops stimulate
microbial activity and increase the breakdown of soil OM.
If cover crop is deeper rooted than preceding crops it can
recycle nutrients from deeper in the soil and return them to the
upper soil when residue is incorporated
Cover crops rather than bare fallow reduce nutrient loss by
capturing nutrients vulnerable to leaching and preventing soil
erosion.

cowpeas

Lablab beans

Summer cover crops - tropical species

Pigeon peas

Sorghum (C4 plant)

Timing of nutrient release from the cover

crops depends on a variety of factors
Soil temperature and moisture affect microbial activity
(lower when cool, dry or waterlogged)
quality of the cover crop residue also important:
C to N ratio of the residue determines whether there is net
release of N (mineralization) or a net decrease in available N
due to immobilization by the soil microbes.
C:N ratios around 22 or less lead to net mineralization,
C:N ratios above 22 lead to net immobilization of N.
At low C:N ratios microbes have more N than C available for
growth, so they release N during decomposition.
At high C:N ratios soil microbes have more C than N available and
take up N from the soil solution

lignin, tannins and polyphenols in residue are less palatable to

microbes and slow residue decomposition.

Effect of C:N ratio on size and timing of peak soil nitrate levels
over 3 years - UC Davis field

Input

C:N

Peak NO3
(ppm)

Timing of peak*
(Days after
incorporation)

Legume +
composted manure

9-12

30-45

7-35,21-49, 7

Legume only

10-15

22

7-50, 21-49, 7

Legume + straw

19-25

15-20

7-35, 21-49, 7

Straw

46-94

5-10

7-77, 21-77,7-21

(yr 1, yr2, yr 3)

Goal: Provide N
Here the best choice would be a legume that is well
adapted to your area.
It is important to ensure that sufficient rhizobia
bacteria are present in the soil to give good root
nodule formation, and hence N2 fixation.
May need to inoculate with rhizobium if it is the first
time a particular legume cover crop has been grown
in a field.

Timing of nutrient release

Important to manage the timing of nutrient release
from cover crops with times of high crop demand
otherwise nutrients become vulnerable to loss
through leaching and the crop may not receive
adequate nutrition at key stages in the growth cycle.
Timi ng of N release with crop demand
Vulnerable
to loss
Crop N
demand

N release by
microbes

Time

How to roughly estimate N

contribution from a cover crop
Calculate above ground dry weight for a given area:
a) Take a number of samples from the field (clip at ground
level, using a yardstick or frame to measure area to be
sampled)
b) Dry for a few days in sun, greenhouse or oven (140F) until
"crunchy" or brittle.
c) Calculate the dry weight produced in lbs/ac as follows:
Dry wt (lb/ac)= wt of samples x 43,560 sq.ft

# of sq. ft sampled

Multiply dry wt by the % N content of the biomass to give

total N in cover crop in lbs/ac:
Total N (lb/ac) = dry wt x %N
100

Typical % N contents for cover

crop types
Before flowering:
Annual legumes
3.5-4%
Perennial legumes 2.5-3%
Grasses, brassicas 2-3%

When flowering:
Annual legumes
3-3.5%
Perennial legumes 2-2.5%
Grasses, brassicas 1.5-2.5%

To estimate how much of the N will be

available to the crop that season
If conventionally tilled:
divide total N by 2

If left on surface:
divide by 2 in warmer climates
divide by 4 in cooler climates.

Goal: improve soil physical

properties
Generally improve soil physical properties by :
increased SOM
increased microbial activity and production of extracellular
glues that enhance aggregate stability
increased water infiltration due to increased porosity - both
macro and micropores
It may be beneficial to include a non-legume to provide organic
material that breaks down more slowly than a legume alone
Some deep-rooted species can help to break through
compacted layers in the soil and improve drainage .
E.g. Sorghum-sudan grass

In a recent study cover crop use in moderately saline soils

impaired soil physical properties

Goal: Weed suppression

Achieved by either:
outcompeting weeds by rapid canopy development and more
vigorous growth
production of allelopathic compounds
provision of dense mulch

Examples:
good options include triticales, sorghum/sudan and other cereals,
brassicas such as rapeseed and oilseed radish and high biomass or
allelopathic legumes. Also a well-balanced mix can also work
providing the canopy closes quickly
cereal rye is also effective due to combination of a dense canopy
and allelopathy, but can become a problematic weed itself in small
grain systems.
For effective mulches use species/mixes that produce lots of slowly
decomposing biomass (have a relatively high C:N ratio)

What to avoid...
Some legumes such as vetch produce hard seed
that remains viable in the soil for years, and can
become a weed if allowed to go to seed prior to
incorporation.
Just as crop rotation is important it may be desirable
to avoid using the same cover crop every year,
particularly a single species.
Otherwise populations of weeds most competitive with that
species will build up, as well as pests and disease
organisms that also attack that species.

Goal : Provide mulch to conserve soil moisture

As for weed suppressive mulches look for

a combination of high above ground
biomass and moderate or high C:N ratio
residues.
Most legume residues with their high
nitrogen content will decompose too
rapidly to be effective.

Goal: Scavenge nutrients & prevent leaching

To maximize nutrient scavenging the cover crop
should have an extensive root system that
develops quickly after planting.
Non-legumes such as small grains, cereal rye,
triticale, rapeseed, annual rye grass oilseed
radish and mustards work well, but some
legumes are also suitable.

Goal: Prevent soil erosion

Here the key is to choose a species that rapidly
covers the soil surface.
Many of the species that are good nutrient
scavengers also provide excellent ground cover.
But... while annual rye grass is a good nutrient
scavenger, it has fine leaves and is slow to cover
the soil surface, and not a good selection for
reducing erosion.

Importance of
ground cover for
reducing erosion

Goal: Protect water quality.

This is achieved by selecting species that
both prevent soil erosion and scavenge
nutrients during periods of high rainfall.
It is also important to avoid turning in high
N cover crops when the soils will be
vulnerable to leaching

Goal: reduce disease and pest

severity
Effects of cover crops depend on the species used
and timing of incorporation and planting of the
subsequent crop.
Some species such as cereal rye, triticale, forage
rapeseeds, mustards and oil seed radish are known
to suppress certain plant parasitic nematodes and
soil borne diseases, whereas most legumes are
highly susceptible and can increase nematode
populations.
Need to have information on pests and diseases
prevalent in an area to identify which cover crops
should be avoided, or only used in mixtures.

Nematode suppressive cover crops

Goal: Provide habitat for beneficial

insects and spiders
From work in orchards and vineyards it is clear that cover
crops provide habitat for beneficials, due to:
vegetative cover
by providing food sources such as extrafloral nectaries (e.g.
vetch) or flowers

This aspect of cover crop ecology has not been well

studied for annual systems, and there may be more
potential than has been recognized.
The key in annual systems is to make sure that when the
cover crop is turned in there are alternative habitats for
the beneficials to move to:
Field margin vegetation, strips of undisturbed cover crops or
insectary plantings

Water issues
If wet spring can help dry out soil profile
Or

Delay early plantings because of need to

incorporate (early plantings often most lucrative)
If have limited water need to carefully consider
trade-offs of using cover crops
Timing critical
Use species with high water use efficiency

How to choose a cover crop

Once you have decided it is desirable to
include a cover crop in a given production
system there are 3 basic steps to follow:
Identify what you want the cover crop to do.
Identify the planting windows where the cover
crop can fit in your crop rotation and what the
climatic and soil conditions are at that time.
Once these two questions are answered, then
you can select the best species or mix to be
used.

Step 1. Identify what you want the cover

crop to do?
Address the most important factors limiting the
productivity and sustainability of your
production system.
Possible goals include:

Improve nutrient availability and provide nitrogen

Improve soil physical properties
Reduce erosion, leaching and protect water quality
Suppress weeds, pests and diseases
provide beneficial habitat

provide surface mulch

Step 2: Identify where the cover crop

fits in your crop rotation
Examine cash crop rotations to identify windows where
cover crops can fit
Most cover crops are planted in the fall to provide cover over
the winter months
In summer when temperatures are high, fast growing species
such as sorghum/sudan, cowpeas, and buckwheat and other
can provide a good biomass return in a short growth period.
It is critical to minimize conflicts in timing of field operations for
cover crops and cash crops.
Once the window is identified then the species selection will
depend on the climatic and soil conditions during the window.
e.g.- frost patterns, soil and air temperatures for germination
and growth, soil pH..

Step 3: Select species/mix to meet the goals

and requirements from steps 1 & 2.
the final step is to match the potential candidates identified in
step 1 with the required characteristics identified in step 2.
Remember - it is as important to consider the characteristics
you dont want as well as those you are looking for.
It is rare that the perfect cover crop will exist and trade-offs
will need to be made between different goals.
A final consideration will be the cost and availability of seed,
and the number and types of field operations required for the
different options to make a sound economic assessment of the
alternatives.

Calopogonium sp

Centrosema pubescens

Pueraria javanica

Mucuna bracteata

Cacao Intercrop
Cacao = main cash crop,
but takes 4-5 yrs to
produce.
This farmer is maximizing
the efficiency of his land by
growing short duration, fast
growing food crops that
provide income and food for
the family, as well as shade,
leaf litter, and erosion
control in cacao grove.

Cacao Intercrop
Plantain & Bananas, Cocoyam, Papaya,
Sugar cane (coconut and oil palms,
rubber, etc.)
Microclimate for Cacao Shade, humidity,
leaf litter (nutrients, OM, soil moisture,
weed control), windbreak.
Economically important crops & food for
farmer

Leucaena

Erosion Control

Advantages of Intercropping
Increased yield per ha
Less competition
Better partitioning of resources

Advantages of Intercropping
Increased yield per ha
Yield stability, greater variety of food crops
in small farm plots
Protection against risk and environmental
extremes (crop diversity, mutual shading,
etc.)

Advantages of Intercropping
cont.
More efficient use of resources (land,
vertical space, sunlight, etc.)
Improved pest management
Other (improved soil quality, physical
support for vine crops, maintain genetic
diversity, etc. )

Competition --- + or - ?
Plant competition = no advantage if both
plant species aggressively pursue
resources in same niche
intercropping
a hindrance instead of a benefit.

Potential competition or
compatibility can vary with
situation, depends on:

Crop species or cultivars

Density of each species
Arrangement (in rows, strips, etc.)
Timing of planting of each crop (e.g., corn
and soybean)

Competitive Production
Advantage
If interspecific competition < intraspecific
competition
Interspecific = between different species
Intraspecific = between members of the same species

Determining Intercrop Advantage

Land Equivalent Ratio
amount of monocultured land needed to
produce same yield as intercrop

Land Equivalent Ratio

= amount of monocultured land needed to
produce same yield as intercrop

LER = RY1 + RY2 =

If LER > 1
If LER < 1

I1
I2
---- + ---M1
M2

Yield of crop 2
grown as
intercrop
Yield of crop 2
grown as
monoculture

intercrop is more efficient

monoculture is more efficient

LER example
Corn

Soybean

Corn
monoculture

4000

Soybean
monoculture

1000

3000

750

Intercrop

(kg/ha)

Land Equivalent Ratio

LER = RY1 + RY2 =

Corn I/M
Soybean I/M

=
=

I1
I2
---- + ---M1
M2
3000/4000
750/1000

Yield of crop 2
grown as
intercrop
Yield of crop 2
grown as
monoculture

Land Equivalent Ratio

LER = RY1 + RY2 =

I1
I2
---- + ---M1
M2

LER = 3000/4000 + 750/1000 = 0.75 + 0.75 = 1.50

Corn

Soybean

Land Equivalent Ratio

0.5 + 0.5 is
expected just
based on land
area

1.5 ha of land needed

to produce same
amount through
monoculture

LER = 3000/4000 + 750/1000 = 0.75 + 0.75 = 1.50

Corn

Soybean

Mechanisms of Intercrop Advantage:

Competitive Production
Plants grow in same area but niches and
resource partitioning are somewhat
different
Together, both plants use available
resources more efficiently

Competitive Production
Partitioning light (canopy differences in
intercrop vs monocrop, C3 vs C4 plants)
Partitioning soil resources (water, N,
minerals, etc.)
Example: legume using N2 source, nonlegume using NO3- source)

Mechanisms of Intercrop Advantage:

Facilitation
One plant modifies environment for benefit
of 2nd species
Soil resources and nutrients (example:
legume transfers more N into soil system,
to the benefit of both plant species)
Pest management (many examples of
reduced pest incidence in intercrops)

Pepper in
Perennial
Peanut
Living
Mulch

Reduced Pests in Polyculture Several Hypotheses to Explain Trend:

1. Disruptive Crop Hypothesis = 2nd plant
species disrupts ability of pest to attack
host crop efficiently (interferes with insect
host finding volatiles, visual, etc.)

Reduced Pests in Polyculture Several Hypotheses to Explain Trend:

2. Natural Enemies Hypothesis = more
predators and parasites in intercrop

3. Trap Crop Hypothesis

Pest diverted away from cash crop to less
important but more attractive trap crop
Density and timing of trap crop is critical:
too low pest not attracted away
too high build up pests or attract more pests into area.

Trap Crop
Could increase pests and cause
more trouble in some cases !!

Assessment: Pests and Natural Enemies in

Polyculture vs. Monoculture
Vary, depend on:
relative densities and ages of plants involved
specific biologies of insects involved

Assessment: Intercropping Successful or

Not?

27%

32%

Thank You