CHEMICAL BONDING

The Chemical Bonding- attractive forces

that hold atoms together in a compound

ionic bonding- the transfer of one or

more electrons from one atom or
group of atoms to another.
Ionic compounds

Covalent bonding- sharing of one or

more electron pairs between atoms.
Covalent compounds

IONIC Bonding
Cation - an atom or group of atoms that has fewer electrons than protons
- positively charged
Anion- is an atom or group of atoms that has more electrons that protons
-negatively charged

Monoatomic ion consists of only one atom ex. Cl-, Mg2+

Polyatomic ions contains more than one atom, NH4+, OH-, SO42-

---attraction of oppositely charged ions (Cations ad Anions) in large numbers to

form a solid (ionic solid)

TERMS
Oxidized lose electrons to form
cations (metals)
Reduced- gain electrons to form
anion (nonmetals)

Covalent Bonding

Valence Bond Theory

Basic
Principle

A covalent bond forms when the orbitals of

two atoms overlap and the overlap region,
which is between the nuclei, is occupied by a
pair of electrons.

The two wave functions are in phase so the amplitude

between the nuclei.

 Two sine waves

illustrate interference.
Two in phase sine
waves add together
with constructive
interference; new
amplitude is twice the
original
Two out of phase sine
waves add together
with destructive
interference; they
cancel out

A set of overlapping orbitals has a maximum

of two electrons that must have opposite
spins.
The greater the orbital overlap, the stronger
(more stable) the bond.
The valence atomic orbitals in a molecule are
different from those in isolated atoms.

There is a hybridization of atomic orbitals to form mole

orbitals.

Chemical Bonds and Energy

When two atoms
approach one
another, the
negatively
charged electron
clouds are
attracted to the
other atoms
positively
charged nucleus.
The diagram
represents
electron density
during bond
formation.

Figure11.1

Orbital overlap and spin pairing in

three diatomic molecules.

Hydrogen, H2

Hydrogen fluoride, HF

Fluorine, F2

Chemical Bonds and the Structure

of Molecules
During ionic bond formation, the cations
and anions achieve np6 electronic
configurations (noble gas configuration).
Metals lose electrons.
Nonmetals gain electrons.

During covalent bond formation,

electrons are shared between two atoms.
Shared electrons are available to both
bonding atoms.
Sharing leads to 8 valence electrons around
each atom.

Chemical Bonds and the Structure

of Molecules
OCTET RULE - an atom will form
covalent
bonds
to
achieve
a
complement
of
eight
valence
electrons.
The valence shell electronic configuration
is ns2np6 for a total of eight electrons.
For the n = 1 shell, hydrogen violates the
octet rule and shares only 2 electrons

 LEWIS DOT SYMBOLS for main group elements.

Elements within a group have the same number of
valence electrons and identical Lewis dot symbols.

The conceptual steps from molecular

formula to the hybrid orbitals used in
bonding.
Step
1
Molecula
r formula

Step
2

LEWIS
STRUCTU
RE

Step
3
GEOMETRY
(Electronic/Id
eal/ e- group
arrangement
and Molecular
Shape

Hybrid
orbitals

Writing Lewis Structures

Lewis structures indicate how many
bonds are formed and between which
elements in a compound.
Step 1 - Count the total valence
electrons in the molecule or ion.
Sum the number of valence electrons for
each element in a molecule.
For ions, add or subtract valence electrons
to account for the charge.

 For the compound OF2, the number of

valence electrons is 20.

F
O

2 x 7 = 14
1x6 = 6

Total = 20

 Step 2 - Draw the skeletal

structure of the molecule.
The element written first in the formula
is usually the central atom, unless it is
hydrogen.
Usually, the central atom is the LEAST
ELECTRONEGATIVE.

 Step 3 - Place single bonds between

all connected atoms in the structure
by drawing lines between them.
A single line represents a bonding pair.
Four electrons are placed in bonds.
Sixteen electrons are left to place.

 Step 4 - Place the remaining valence

electrons not accounted for on
individual atoms until the octet rule is
satisfied. Place electrons as lone
pairs whenever possible.
Place electrons first on outer atoms,
then on central atoms.
Six electrons are placed as lone pairs on
each F satisfies the octet rule for each F.
The four remaining electrons are placed on
the O to satisfy the octet rule for each O.

 Step 5 - Create multiple bonds by

shifting lone pairs into bonding positions
as needed for any atoms that do not
have a full octet of valence electrons.
Correctly choosing which atoms to form
multiple bonds between comes from
experience.
Multiple bonds are not required for OF2, as
the octet rule is satisfied for each atom.

 N - A = S rule
Simple mathematical relationship to help us
write Lewis dot formulas.
N = number of electrons needed to achieve a
noble gas configuration.
N usually has a value of 8 for representative
elements.
N has a value of 2 for H atoms.
A = number of electrons available in valence
shells of the atoms.
A is equal to the periodic group number for
each element.
A is equal to 8 for the noble gases.
S = number of electrons shared in bonds.
A-S = number of electrons in unshared, lone,

 For ions we must adjust the number of

electrons available, A.
Add one e- to A for each negative charge.
Subtract one e- from A for each positive
charge.
The central atom in a molecule or
polyatomic ion is determined by:
The atom that requires the largest
number of electrons to complete its octet
goes in the center.
For two atoms in the same periodic
group, the less electronegative element
goes in the center.

Formal Charges
Formal charges are analogous to
oxidations numbers:
They are not actual charges
They keep track of electron ownership

Formal Charge = Valence e no. of bonds

no. of nonbonding e

EXAMPLE
Draw the LEWIS Structure of the
following molecules or ions:
1.CO2
6. SOCl2
11. SO322.H2O

7. SOF4

12. PCl5

3.NH3

8. NH4+

13. ClF5

4.HF

9. NO2-1

14. CO32-

5.PCl3

10. SO3

15. C2H4

The conceptual steps from molecular

formula to the hybrid orbitals used in
bonding.
Step
1
Molecula
r formula

Step
Step
3
2
GEOMETRY
Lewis
structure
(Electronic/I
deal/egroup
arrangemen
t and
Molecular
Shape

Hybrid
orbitals

VALENCE
SHELL
ELECTRON
PAIR
REPULSION
(VSEPR)
THEORY
The IDEAL/Electronic GEOMETRY of
a molecule is determined by the way
the electron pairs orient themselves
in space
The orientation of electron pairs arises from
electron repulsions
The electron pairs spread out so as to minimize
repulsion

 The MOLECULAR GEOMETRY of a

molecule is determined by the way
the
electron
pairs
orient
themselves with respect to their
relative strength to repel each
other.
The orientation of electron pairs arises from
electron repulsions
The electron pairs spread out so as to minimize
repulsion

NOTE:

DECREASING

repulsion,

Methane has
HOW does
four equal bonds, the lone pair of
so the bond
ammonia affect
angles are equal. its geometry?

Copyright 2012 John

Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Klein, Organic Chemistry 1e

The bond
angles in oxygen
are even smaller.
WHY?

1-31

Molecular Geometry

Figure 7.8 - Molecular Geometry Summary 2

The conceptual steps from molecular

formula to the hybrid orbitals used in
bonding.
Step
1
Molecula
r formula

Step
2
Lewis
structure

Step
3
GEOMETRY
(Electronic/Id
HYBRID
eal/ e- group
ORBITA
arrangement
LS
and Molecular
Shape

Hybrid Orbitals
Key
Points
The number of hybrid orbitals obtained
equals the number of atomic orbitals mixed.
The type of hybrid orbitals obtained varies
with the types of atomic orbitals mixed.
Types of Hybrid Orbitals
sp

sp

sp

sp3
d

sp3
d2

Figure11.2

The sp hybrid orbitals in gaseous

BeCl2.

atomic
orbitals
hybrid
orbitals

orbital box diagrams

Figure11.3

The sp2 hybrid orbitals in

BF3.

Figure11.4

The sp3 hybrid orbitals in

CH4.

Figure11.5

The sp3 hybrid orbitals in

NH3.

Figure11.5continued

The sp3 hybrid orbitals in

H2O.

Figure11.6

The sp3d hybrid orbitals in

PCl5.

Figure11.7

The sp3d2 hybrid orbitals

in SF6.

Valence Bond : Hybrid Orbitals

EXAMPLE
Determine the geometry (electronic
and molecular) and the hybrid orbital
used by the central atom)of the
following molecules or ions:
1.CO2
6. SOCl2 11. SO322.H2O

7. SOF4 12. PCl5

3.NH3

8. NH4+ 13. ClF5

4.HF

9. NO2-1 14. CO32-

5.PCl3

10. SO3 15. C2H4

Polar Molecules: The Influence of

Molecular Geometry
Molecular geometry affects molecular
polarity.

Due to the effect of the bond dipoles and

how they either cancel or reinforce each
Polar
other.Molecules must meet two

requirements:

1. One polar bond or one lone pair of

electrons on central atom.
2. Neither bonds nor lone pairs can be
symmetrically arranged that their
polarities cancel.
45

46

47

EXAMPLE
Determine the following molecules or
ions are polar or non-polar:
1.CO2
6. SOCl2
11. SO322.H2O

7. SOF4

12. PCl5

3.NH3

8. NH4+

13. ClF5

4.HF

9. NO2-1

14. CO32-

5.PCl3

10. SO3

15. C2H4

Homework No. 2
MF

CN-1
NO2
SeCl4
PO43XeF4
SF4
H3O+
BF3
O

Lewis Electronic Molecular Hybri

Structur Geometry Geometry
d
e
Orbit
al