Chapter 6

Bulk Deformation
Processes

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Ideal Deformation

FIGURE6.1(a)Idealdeformationofasolidcylindrical
specimencompressedbetweenflatfrictionlessdies.This
processisknownasupsetting.(b)Deformationin
upsettingwithfrictionatthedieworkpieceinterfaces.

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Impression-Die Forging

FIGURE6.14Schematicillustrationofstagesinimpressiondieforging.Notetheformation
offlash,orexcessmaterialthatissubsequentlytrimmedoff.
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Flat-And-ShapeRolling Processes

FIGURE6.29Schematicoutline
ofvariousflatandshaperolling
processes.Source:AmericanIron
andSteelInstitute.

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Drawing
FIGURE6.62Variablesin
drawingroundrodorwire.

FIGURE6.63Variationinstrainandflow
stressinthedeformationzoneindrawing.
Notethatthestrainincreasesrapidly
towardtheexit.Thereasonisthatwhenthe
exitdiameteriszero,thetruestrainreaches
infinity.ThepointYwirerepresentstheyield
stressofthewire.

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Tube Drawing

FIGURE6.67Variousmethodsoftubedrawing.

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Swaging
FIGURE6.71Schematicillustrationoftheswagingprocess:(a)sideviewand
(b)frontview.(c)Schematicillustrationofrollerarrangement,curvatureonthe
fourradialhammers(thatgivemotiontothedies),andtheradialmovementofa
hammerasitrotatesovertherolls.

FIGURE6.72Reductionofouterandinnerdiametersof
tubesbyswaging.(a)Freesinkingwithoutamandrel.The
endsofsolidbarsandwirearetapered(pointing)bythis
processinordertofeedthematerialintotheconicaldie.(b)
Sinkingonamandrel.Coaxialtubesofdifferentmaterialscan
alsobeswagedinoneoperation.

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Cross-Sections Produced By Swaging

FIGURE6.73(a)Typicalcrosssectionsproducedbyswagingtubeblankswithaconstantwallthicknesson
shapedmandrels.Riflingofsmallgunbarrelscanalsobemadebyswaging,usingaspeciallyshapedmandrel.
Theformedtubeisthenremovedbyslippingitoutofthemandrel.(b)Thesepartscanalsobemadebyswaging.

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Bulk-Deformation Processes

TABLE6.1Generalcharacteristicsofbulkdeformationprocesses.
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Classification

BulkDeformationProcesses

Name

Characters

Cost

Skill

Forging

Production of discrete parts with

dies

High

High skill

Rolling (Flat)

Flat plate, sheet, foil in long length

High Equipment cost

Low skill

Rolling (shape)

Various structural shapes, I-beam

Expensive Equipment

Moderate

Extrusion

Long length of solid or hollow

products with constant crosssection.

Moderate to high die and

equipment cost

Moderate

Drawing

Production of long rod and wire

Moderate cost

Low skill

Swaging

Radial forging of discrete or long

parts with various internal and
external shapes; generally carried
out at room temperature;

Moderate cost

low to
moderate
operator
skill.

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Grain Flow Lines

FIGURE6.2Grainflowlinesin
upsettingasolidsteelcylinderat
elevatedtemperatures.Notethe
highlyinhomogenousdeformation
andbarreling.Thedifferentshapeof
thebottom,sectionofthespecimen
(ascomparedwiththetop)results
fromthehotspecimenrestingonthe
lower,cooldiebeforedeformation
proceeded.Thebottomsurfacewas
chilled;thusitexhibitsgreater
strengthandhencedeformslessthan
thetopsurface.Source:J.A.Schey
etal.,IITResearchInstitute.

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Grid Deformation In Upsetting

FIGURE6.3Schematicillustrationofgriddeformationinupsetting:(a)originalgridpattern;
(b)afterdeformation,withoutfriction;(c)afterdeformation,withfriction.Suchdeformation
patternscanbeusedtocalculatethestrainswithinadeformingbody.

Stresses in
Plane-Strain
Compression
FIGURE6.4Stressesonanelementinplanestraincompression(forging)betweenflatdies.Thestress xis
assumedtobeuniformlydistributedalongtheheighthoftheelement.Identifyingthestressesonanelement
(slab)isthefirststepintheslabmethodofanalysisformetalworkingprocesses.

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Distribution of Die Pressure

FIGURE6.5Distributionofdie
pressure,intermsofp/Y,inplane
straincompressionwithsliding
friction.Notethatthepressureatthe
leftandrightboundariesisequaltothe
yieldstressinplanestrain,Y.Sliding
frictionmeansthatthefrictionalstress
isdirectlyproportionaltothenormal
stress.

FIGURE6.6Normalstress(pressure)
distributioninthecompressionofa
rectangularworkpiecewithslidingfriction
underconditionsofplanestress,usingthe
distortionenergycriterion.Notethatthe
stressatthecornersisequaltotheuniaxial
yieldstress,Y,ofthematerial.

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Contact Area of Rectangular Specimen

FIGURE6.7Increaseincontactareaofarectangularspecimen(viewedfromthetop)compressedbetweenflat
dieswithfriction.Notethatthelengthofthespecimenhasincreasedhasincreasedproportionatelylessthanits
width.Likewise,aspecimenintheshapeofcubeacquirestheshapeofapancakeafterdeformationwithfriction.

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Stresses Between Flat Dies

FIGURE6.8Stressesonanelementinforgingofasolidcylindricalworkpiecebetweenflatdies.
ComparewithFig.6.4.Source:(a)AfterJ.F.W.Bishop,J.Mech.Phys.Solids,Vol.6,1958,pp.132
144(b)AdaptedfromW.SchroederandD.A.Webster,Trans.ASME,Vol.71,1949,pp.289294.

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Die Pressure/Yield Stress

FIGURE6.9Ratioofaveragediepressuretoyieldstressasafunctionoffrictionandaspectratioofthespecimen:(a)
planestraincompression;and(b)compressionofasolidcylindricalspecimen.Notethattheyieldstressin(b)isY,notY
,asintheplanestraincompressionshownin(a).Source:AfterJ.W.F.Bishop,W.Schroeder,andD.A.Webster.

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Die Pressure in Sticking

FIGURE6.10Distributionofdiepressure,intermsofp/Y,inthecompressionofa
rectangularspecimeninplanestrainandunderstickingconditions.Thepressureattheedges
istheuniaxialyieldstressofthematerialinplanestrain,Y.

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Finite Element Simulation

FIGURE6.11Plasticdeformationin
forgingaspredictedbythefiniteelement
methodofanalysis.Source:Courtesyof
ScientificForming,Inc.

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Pressures in Frictionless Plane-Strain

FIGURE6.12Die
pressuresrequiredin
frictionlessplanestrain
conditionsforavariety
ofmetalworking
operations.The
geometricrelationship
betweencontactareaof
thediesandworkpiece
dimensionsisan
importantfactorin
predictingforcesin
plasticdeformationof
materials.Source:After
W.A.Backofen.

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Plastic Deformation in Plane Strain

FIGURE6.13Examplesofplastic
deformationprocessesinplanestrain,
showingtheh/Lratio.(a)Indentingwith
flatdies.Thisoperationissimilarto
cogging,showninFig.6.19.(b)
Drawingorextrusionofstripwitha
wedgeshapeddie,describedinSections
6.4and6.5.(c)Ironing;seealsoFig.
7.54.(d)Rolling,describedinSection
6.3.AsshowninFig.6.12,thelargerthe
h/Lratio,thehigherthediepressure
becomes.Inactualprocessing,however,
thesmallerthisratio,thegreateristhe
effectoffrictionatthedieworkpiece
interfaces.Thereasonisthatcontact
area,andhencefriction,increaseswitha
decreasingh/Lratio.

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Impression-Die Forging

FIGURE6.14Schematicillustrationofstagesinimpressiondieforging.Notethe
formationofflash,orexcessmaterialthatissubsequentlytrimmedoff.

F=(Kp)(Yf)(A)

Analysis
Simple shapes, without flash
Simple shapes, with flash
Complex shapes, with flash

3-5
5-8
8-12

TABLE6.2RangeofKpvaluesinEq.(6.21)forimpressiondieforging.
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Load-Stroke Curve in Closed-Die Forging

FIGURE6.15Typicalload
strokecurveforcloseddie
forging.Notethesharpincreasein
loadaftertheflashbeginstoform.
Inhotforgingoperations,the
flashrequireshighlevelsofstress,
becauseitisthinthatis,ithasa
smallhandcoolerthanthebulk
oftheforging.Source:AfterT.
Altan.

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Heading

FIGURE6.17Forgingheadson
fastenerssuchasboltsandrivets.
Theseprocessesarecalledheading.

Piercing Operations

FIGURE6.18Examplesofpiercing
operations.

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Cogging Operation

FIGURE6.19Schematicillustrationofacoggingoperationonarectangularbar.Withsimpletools,thethicknessand
crosssectionofabarcanbereducedbymultiplecoggingoperations.Notethebarrelingaftercogging.Blacksmithsusea
similarproceduretoreducethethicknessofpartsinsmallincrementsbyheatingtheworkpieceandhammeringitnumerous
times.

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Roll Forging Operation

FIGURE6.20Schematicillustrationofarollforging(crossrolling)operation.Taperedleaf
springsandknivescanbemadebythisprocesswithspeciallydesignedrolls.Source:AfterJ.
Holub.

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Manufacture of Spherical Blanks

FIGURE6.21Productionofsteelballsforbearings
bytheskewrollingprocess.Ballsforbearingscan
alsobemadebytheforgingprocessshowninFig.
6.22.

FIGURE6.22Productionofsteel
ballsbyupsettingofacylindrical
blank.Notetheformationofflash.
Theballsaresubsequentlyground
andpolishedforuseasball
bearingsandinothermechanical
components.

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Internal Defects In Forging

FIGURE6.23Laps
formedbybucklingof
thewebduringforging.

FIGURE6.24Internaldefectsproducedinaforgingbecauseofanoversizedbillet.Thedie
cavitiesarefilledprematurely,andthematerialatthecenterofthepartflowspastthefilled
regionsasdeformationcontinues.

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Defect Formation In Forging

FIGURE6.25Effectoffilletradiusondefectformationinforging.Smallfillets(rightside
ofdrawings)causethedefects.Source:AluminumCompanyofAmerica.

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Forging A Connecting Rod

FIGURE6.26Stagesinforgingaconnectingrodforaninternalcombustionengine.Note
theamountofflashthatisnecessarytofillthediecavitiesproperly.

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Features Of A Forging Die

FIGURE6.27Standardterminologyforvariousfeaturesofatypicalforgingdie.

Hot-Forging Temperature Ranges

Metal
Aluminum alloys
Copper alloys
Nickel alloys

C
400-450
625-950
870-1230

F
750-850
1150-1750
1600-2250

Metal
Alloy steels
Titanium alloys
Refractory alloys

TABLE6.3Hotforgingtemperaturerangesforvariousmetals.
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C
925-1260
750-795
975-1650

F
1700-2300
1400-1800
1800-3000

Presses Used In Metalworking

FIGURE6.28Schematicillustrationofvarioustypesofpressesusedinmetalworking.The
choiceofthepressisanimportantfactorintheoveralloperation.

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