Bon2003 Atm

ISDN, B-ISDN, X.
25, Frame-Relay,
ATM Networks:
A Telephony View of Convergence
Architectures
Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
shivkuma@ecse.rpi.edu
http://www.ecse.rpi.edu/Homepages/shivkuma
Based in part on slides of Raj Jain (OSU), S. Keshav (Ensim)
Based also on the reference books: by U. Black, J.C. Bellamy
Overview
Switched Packet-Data Services

Integrated Services Vision and Concept Ingredients
History: X.25, ISDN, Frame Relay
ATM Networks: foundation for B-ISDN
ATM Key Concepts
ATM Signaling and PNNI Routing
ATM Traffic Management
IP over ATM: setting the stage for MPLS
A Telephony View of Convergence
Separate Voice network (PSTN) and Data Networks

(Frame Relay, SMDS, etc.)
PSTN sometimes used as a data network backbone, but
PSTN is circuit switched (voice-optimized) and PSTNbased WAN not efficient
Delay sensitive traffic such as voice not possible on
data networks since no guarantee of QoS
Initial attempts to converge data and voice network not
too successful, i.e. ISDN
B-ISDN and ATM networks viewed as the convergence
end-point leading world-wide domination of telephony
driven standards
Switched Packet-Data Services
After the success of T1, the telephone carriers saw the

growth in packet switched networks
Evolved their own flavors of packet switching, notably
X.25, ISDN, SMDS, Frame Relay, ATM etc
Key concept: Switched services
Switched services: (aka dial-up service)
Digital communications that is active only when the
customer initiates a connection.
Subsumes both circuit switched and packet switched.
Customer to be billed only when the line is active.
Led to activity-based or average-load-based pricing models
that did not necessarily have a distance-based component
Vs peak-rate and distance-sensitive T-carrier pricing
Ingredients
Signaling and setup of a virtual circuit (I.e. nailing down a

switched path) is a common feature
Signaling was heavyweight, and was coupled to
heavyweight QoS routing
Contrast this to connectionless, best-effort Internet
Long 20-byte global addresses used only in signaling

Short 4-byte local labels (aka DLCI etc) used in packets
(cells): label-switching
Large address space, low per-packet overhead
ISDN/B-ISDN vision of an end-to-end integrated digital network:

Rich QoS capabilities developed: support for voice, data,
video traffic
Ingredients (contd)
X.25 -> Frame relay/ATM: reduction of hop-by-hop

processing complexities
Led to the development of high-speed switches and
networks
A serious attempt to inter-network with a variety of
data-networking protocols (IP, Ethernet etc)
Integration (coupling) of too many features led to slow

rollout, enormous overall complexity
Failure to attain the end-to-end market vision
Current trend is to de-couple building blocks of the
architecture within the context of IP/MPLS, sacrificing
strict performance guarantees.
X.25
X.25
First packet switching interface in the telephony world

Issued in 1976 and revised in 1980, 1984, 1988, and 1992.
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) to Data Communication Equipment
(DCE) interface
User to network interface (UNI)
Slow speeds, used in point-of-sale apps (eg: credit-card validation)
and several apps abroad
X.25 Virtual Circuits
Circuit: Pin a path, reserve resources, use TDM based transmission

Virtual Circuit = Virtual Call: pin a path, optionally reserve resources
Connection-oriented: Setup an end-to-end association (datastructure); path not pinned
Connectionless: stateless. No path, no end-to-end association
Two Types of Virtual Circuits:
Switched virtual circuit (SVC): Similar to phone call
Permanent virtual circuit (PVC): Similar to leased lines
Up to 4095 VCs on one X.25 interface
X.25 Protocol Layers
Note: the three modular layers were co-specified by the

same standards body
Layers:
X.21 replaced by EIA-232 (RS-232C)
LAP-B = Link access procedure - Balanced
Packet layer = Connection-oriented transport over
virtual circuits
10
X.25 Physical Layer
Electrical and mechanical specifications of the interface

X.21 = 15-pin digital recommendation
X.21bis = X.21 twice = X.21 second
Interim analog specification to allow existing equipment to be upgraded.
Now more common than X.21 => X.21 Rev 2
RS-232-C developed by Electronics Industries
Association of America (EIA) is most common
Uses 25-pin connector. Commonly used in PCs.
11
Link Layer Roots: HDLC Family
Original:
Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC): IBM
Derivatives:
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC): ISO
Link Access Procedure-Balanced (LAPB): X.25
Link Access Procedure for the D channel (LAPD): ISDN
Link Access Procedure for modems (LAPM): V.42
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): Internet
Logical Link Control (LLC): IEEE
Link Access Procedure for half-duplex links (LAPX): Teletex

Advanced Data Communications Control Procedures (ADCCP):
ANSI
V.120 and Frame relay also use HDLC
12
HDLC (contd)
Primary station: Issue commands (master)

Secondary Station:Issue responses (slave)
Hybrids:
Combined Station: Both primary and secondary: a.k.a
Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
Balanced Configuration: Two combined stations
Unbalanced Configuration: One or more secondary
Normal Response Mode (NRM): Response from secondary

Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM): Secondary may
respond before command
13
LAPB
Uses balanced mode subset of HDLC between DTE and

DCE
Uses 01111110 as frame delimiter
Uses bit stuffing to avoid delimiters inside the frames
Uses HDLC frame format
Point-to-point: Only two stations - DTE (A), DCE (B)
Addresses: A=00000011, B=00000001
Address = Destination Addresses in Commands
14
HDLC frames
Information Frames: User data

Piggybacked Acks: Next frame expected
Poll/Final = Command/Response
Supervisory Frames: Flow and error control
Go back N and Selective Reject
Final No more data to send
Unnumbered Frames: Control
Mode setting commands and responses
Information transfer commands and responses
Recovery commands and responses
Miscellaneous commands and responses
15
HDLC Operation
SABM: Set
Asynchronous
Balanced Mode
UA: Unnumbered
ACK
DISC: disconnect
RR: Receiver Ready
RNR: Receiver Not
Ready
I: information frame
Heavyweight Link-Setup and Per-Packet Acking !!
16
HDLC Operation (Contd)
17
X.25 Packet Level: Layer 3
Packet Level = End-to-end for X.25 networks

But really Layer 3 (network layer)
Packet level procedures:

Establishment and clearing of virtual calls
Management of PVCs
Flow Control
Recovery from error conditions
18
X.25 Packet Level (Layer 3) Signaling Operation
Redundant signaling and reliability functions at L2 and L3!

19
X.25 Packet Format
GFI = Packet formatting information

PTI = 20 possible packet types (for de-multiplexing)
Logical Channel Group and Channel Numbers:

Virtual circuit identifier
20
(Layer 3) Packet Format (contd)
Fragmentation/Reassembly support:
M = More segments
Layer 3 reliability:
P(R) and P(S) refer to packet sequence #
Different from N(R) and N(S) - frame sequence #
21
(Layer 3) Packet Format (Contd)
3-bit and 7-bit sequence number options possible

Again, note: these are layer 3 sequence numbers
22
ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network
23
ISDN: End-to-End Digital Services Vision
24
ISDN Configurations
25
BRI and PRI Services
* Basic Rate ISDN and Primary Rate ISDN.

* BRI can transmit data up to 128 kbps.
* PRI (transmitted over a T1 line) can transmit data up to 1.536 Mbps.
An LDN (Local Directory Number): customer's 7-digit ISDN phone
number.
A SPID (Service Profile Identifier): unique ID of an ISDN line or service
provider (10+ digits long and includes the LDN).
26
Basic Rate ISDN (BRI): contd
Basic Rate ISDN service divides a standard telephone

line into three digital channels capable of simultaneous
voice and data transmission.
The three channels are comprised of two Bearer (B)
channels at 64 kpbs each and a data (D) channel at 16
kbps, also known as 2B+D.
The B channels are used to carry voice, video, and
data to the customer's site (hence the term integrated
services).
The D channel is used to carry signaling and
supplementary services.
Multiple B channels can be used at the same time. The
D channel can also be used to carry packetized data.
27
BRI and Reference Model
28
BRI Reference Model Details
U-interface: U-interface is a 2-wire digital telephone line that runs

from the telephone company's central office to an NT1 device.
NT1 (Network Termination Type 1): NT1 is a Basic Rate ISDN-only

device that converts a service provider's U-interface to a customer's
S/T-interface. Stand-alone or integrated into a terminal adapter.
S/T-interface: S/T-interface is a common way of referring to either

an S- or T-interface. This can be used to connect directly to an ISDN
2B+D NT1 or an NT2 device with a terminal adapter. This type of
interface is often found on Terminal Equipment Type 1.
TE1: TE1 (Terminal Equipment Type 1) is ISDN-ready equipment

that can directly connect to the ISDN line (often using an S/ Tinterface). Eg: ISDN phones, ISDN routers, ISDN computers, etc.
29
BRI Ref Model Details: Contd
TA (terminal adapter): TA is a device that allows nonISDN-ready equipment to connect to an ISDN line. This
device can have an integrated NT1.
R-interface: R-interface is a non-ISDN interface such as

an EIA-232 or a V.35 interface. This type of interface is
often found on TE2.
TE2 (Terminal Equipment Type 2): TE2 is equipment

that cannot directly connect to an ISDN line. A common
example of this device is a PC, or a non-ISDN-ready
router. A TA must be used to connect to the ISDN line.
30
Primary Rate ISDN (PRI)
Primary Rate Interface (PRI) ISDN is a user-to-network interface (UNI) consisting of:
Twenty-three 64 kbps bearer (B) channels, and
One 64 kbps signaling (D) channel (aka 23B+D)
Cumulatively carried over a 1.544 Mbps DS-1 circuit.
The B channels carry data, voice or video traffic. The D channel is used to set up calls on the B
channels.
31
ISDN Reference Model
32
LAPD Framing in ISDN
33
Q.931: ISDN Signaling
34
Frame Relay
35
Dis-economics of Leased Lines
Multiple logical links => Multiple connections

Four nodes => 12 ports (full mesh!!)
12 local exchange carrier (LEC) access lines,
6 inter-exchange carrier (IXC) connections
One more node => 8 more ports, 8 more LEC lines, 4 more
IXC circuits (same issues as full mesh in LANs)
Charged both by bandwidth and by the mile!
36
X.25/Frame Relay Niche
6 IXC circuits (star vs full mesh: FR network is like a hub or switch in a startopology)
One more node: 1 more port,
1 more access line, 4 more IXC circuits
Share local leased lines to LECs (aka Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) or
closed-user groups (CUGs))
Tradeoffs:
Packetized L2 (FR) or L3 (X.25) service instead of digital L1 service (T-carrier)
Service guarantees weaker (delay, jitter, loss; PIR/CIR vs peak rate)
37
X.25 vs Frame Relay
X.25 Message Exchanges
Frame Relay Message Exchanges
FR obviously more efficient from a protocol standpoint than X.25,

in addition to the compelling economics vs leased lines
38
X.25 vs Frame Relay
X.25: interface between host and packet-switching network

3 layers: phy, link, packet
Heavyweight: error control at every link as well as layer
3: twelve messages for one packet transfer!!
X.25 offers no QoS capability
Frame relay breaks up link-layer into two parts:

LAPF-core and LAPF-control
Network nodes only implement LAPF-core
Frame Switching is a service that implements both
Frame relay uses a separate VC for control channel in vs

in-band control approach used in X.25
39
Frame Relay Overview
Frame Relay: digital packet network providing benefits

dedicated T-1 link, but without the expense of multiple
dedicated circuits.
Frame Relay leverages the underlying telephone network
Frame Relay distance-insensitive and average-rate pricing is
an ideal, cost-effective solution for networks with bursty traffic
Especially those that require connections to multiple locations and

where a certain degree of delay is acceptable.
FR also allows a voice circuit to share the same virtual connection as
a data circuit, again, saving money.
Frame Relay assumes higher-speed, low error-rate

underlying PHY.
Switches do not perform hop-by-hop error correction (other than

discarding corrupted frames) or flow control (other than setting
FECN/BECN bits)
40
Frame Relay: Key Features
X.25 simplified
No flow and error control
Out-of-band signaling
Two layers
Protocol multiplexing in the second layer
Congestion control added
Higher speed possible.
X.25 suitable to 200 kbps vs
Frame relay suitable to 2.048 Mbps.
Frame Relay = Unreliable multiplexing service
X.25 Switching = Relaying + Ack + Flow control + Error
recovery +loss recovery
41
Frame Relay Reference Model & Lingo
PVC: Permanent Virtual Circuit

DLCI: Data Link Connection Identifier
CIR: Committed Information Rate
CSU: Channel Service Unit
UNI: User-to-Network Interface
NNI: Network-to-Network Interface
DTE: Data Terminal Equipment
DE: Discard Eligible
FRAD: Frame Relay Access Device
DSU: Data Service Unit
42
Frame Relay Lingo (contd)
Frame Relay Access Device FRAD: generic name for a device that
multiplexes/formats traffic for entering a Frame Relay network.
Access Line: A communications line interconnecting a Frame Relaycompatible device to a Frame Relay switch.
Bursty/burstiness: Sporadic use of bandwidth that does not use the total
bandwidth of a circuit 100% of the time.
CIR (Committed Information Rate): The committed rate (usually < the
access/peak rate) which the carrier guarantees to be available
DE (Discard Eligibility): A user-set bit: frame may be discarded
DLCI (Data Link Connection Identifier): A unique number IDing a
particular PVC endpoint: has local significance only to that channel.
BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification): A bit set by a FR
network to notify an interface device (DTE) that congestion avoidance
procedures should be initiated by the sending device.
FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification): A bit set by a FR
network to notify an interface device (DTE) that congestion avoidance
procedures should be initiated by the receiving device.
43
Frame Relay Lingo (Contd)
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment): User terminal

equipment which creates information for transmission; for
example, a user's PC or a router.
CSU/DSU: A customer owned, physical layer device that
connects DTE (eg: router) to an access line (eg: T1),
from the network service provider.
Traditionally, DSUs were network-owned equipment
used in conjunction with customer-owned CSUs to
terminate access lines.
Because of regulatory changes, there is no need for
physical separation of CSU and DSU any longer =>
combination CSU/DSUs.
44
Datalink Control Identifiers (DLCI)
* Similar to X.25 DLCI: Only local significance

* Multiple logical connections over one physical circuit
* Some ranges pre-assigned
Eg: DLCI = 0 is used for signaling
45
Frame Relay UNI (aka FUNI)
UNI = User-network Interface

LAPF = Link Access Protocol - Frame Mode Services
LAPD = Link Access Protocol - D Channel
Control Plane:
Signaling over D channel (D = Delta = Signaling)
Data transfer over B, D, or H (B = Bearer)
LAPD used for reliable signaling
ISDN Signaling Q.933 + Q.931 re-used for signaling messages
Service Access Point Identifier (SAPI) in LAPD = 0
=> Q.933 + Q.931 Frame relay message
46
Frame Relay: Data (User) Plane
Link Access Procedure for Frame-Mode bearer services

(LAPF)
Functions:
Q.922 = Enhanced LAPD (Q.921) = LAPD + Congestion Control
Frame delimiting, alignment, and flag transparency

Virtual circuit multiplexing and de-multiplexing
Octet alignment => Integer number of octets before zero-bit insertion
Checking min and max frame sizes
Error detection, Sequence and non-duplication
Congestion control
LAPF control may be used for end-to-end signaling
A FR-variant called frame-switching uses this at every hop

47
Frame Relay: LAPF-Core Protocol
LAPF is similar to LAPD: Flag, bit stuffing, FCS

No control frames in LAPF-Core => No control field
No in-band signaling unlike X.25
No flow control, no error control, no sequence numbers
Logical Link Control (LLC) may be used on the top of LAPF core
48
LAPF Address Field
49
Frame Relay Traffic Management
Minimum rate guarantee: Committed Information Rate (CIR)

Maximum burst rate: Peak Information Rate (PIR)
TM enforcement model:
Discard Control (DE Bit) set on all packets when CIR <
user rate < PIR
Network usually over-provisioned for CIR, but underprovisioned for PIR
Can drop packets with DE set during congestion (I.e.
when absolutely necessary)
Congestion control hooks:
Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN)

Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN)
Very nice ideas later proposed as ECN in TCP/IP
But generally ignored in practice by CPE equipment
50
CIR/PIR Service Example
51
Leaky Bucket Policing @ Network Edge
52
Leaky Bucket Parameters
Committed Information Rate (CIR)

Committed Burst Size (Bc):
Excess Burst Size (Be)
Measurement interval T
T = Bc/CIR
Policing actions:
Between Bc and Bc + Be => Mark DE bit
Over Be => Discard
53
FECN
Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN)

Source sets FECN = 0
Networks set FECN if avg Q >1
Dest tells source to inc/dec the rate (or window)
Start with R = CIR (or W=1)
If more than 50% bits set => decrease to 0.875 R (or 0.875W)
If less than 50% bits set => increase to 1.0625 R (or
min{W+1, Wmax})
If idle for a long time, reset R = CIR (or W=1)
54
BECN
Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN)
Set BECN bit in reverse traffic or send Consolidated LinkLayer Management (CLLM) message to source
On first BECN bit: Set R = CIR
On further "S" BECNs: R=0.675 CIR, 0.5 CIR, 0.25
CIR
On S/2 BECNs clear: Slowly increase R = 1.125 R
If idle for long, R = CIR
55
BECN (Contd)
For window based control:

S = One frame interval
Start with W=1
First BECN W = max(0.625W,1)
Next S BECNs W = max(0.625W,1)
S/2 clear BECNs => W = max(W+1, Wmax)
CLLM contains a list of congested DLCIs
56
ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode
57
Why ATM networks?
Driven by the integration of services and performance

requirements of both telephony and data networking
broadband integrated service vision (B-ISDN)
Telephone networks support a single quality of service
and is expensive to boot
Internet supports no quality of service
but is flexible and cheap
ATM networks are meant to support a range of service
qualities at a reasonable cost
Intended to subsume both the telephone network and
the Internet
58
ATM Concepts
1. Virtual circuits
2. Fixed-size packets (cells): allowed fast h/w switching
3. Small packet size
4. Statistical multiplexing
5. Integrated services
6. Good management and traffic engineering features
7. Scalability in speed and network size
Together
can carry multiple types of traffic
with end-to-end quality of service
59
ATM Applications
ATM Deployments:
Frame Relay backbones
Internet backbones
Aggregating Residential broadband networks (Cable,
DSL, ISDN)
Carrier infrastructures for the telephone and privateline networks
Failed market tests of ATM:

ATM workgroup and campus networks
ATM enterprise network consolidation
End-to-end ATM
60
ATM vs Synchronous (Phone) Networks
Phone networks are synchronous (periodic).

ATM = Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Phone networks use circuit-switching.
ATM networks use Packet or cell Switching
In phone networks, all rates are multiple of 64 kbps.
With ATM service, you can get any rate, and you can vary
your rate with time.
With current phone networks, all high speed circuits are
manually setup.
ATM allows dialing any speed & rapid provisioning
61
ATM vs Data Networks (Internet)
ATM is virtual circuit based: the path (and optionally resources on

the path) is reserved before transmission
ATM Cells: Fixed/small size: tradeoff between voice/data
Internet provides best-effort routing (combination of RIP/OSPF/IS-IS/BGP4), aiming only for connectivity
Addressing:
IP packets: variable size
ATM provides QoS routing coupled to signaling (PNNI)
Internet Protocol (IP) is connectionless, and end-to-end resource

reservations not possible
RSVP is a new signaling protocol in the Internet
ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signaling and 32-bit locallyassigned labels in cells
IP uses 32-bit global addresses in all packets
ATM offers sophisticated traffic management
TCP/IP: congestion control is packet-loss-based
62
Brief History of ATM
1996+: death of ATM in the enterprise, rollouts in

carrier networks
63
ATM Interfaces
UNI = User-Network Interface (Private & Public)

NNI = Network Node Interface (Private and Public)
B-ICI = Broadband Inter-Carrier Interface
DXI = Data Exchange Interface
64
ATM Forum Standards
65
ATM Switch Hierarchy
66
ATM Layers
Adaptation: mapping apps (eg: voice, data) to ATM cells

Physical layer: SONET etc
ATM Layer: Transmission/Switching/Reception, Congestion
Control, Cell header processing, Sequential delivery etc
67
AAL Sublayers and AAL5:
AAL Sublayers
Convergence Sublayer (CS)
Determines Class of Service (CoS) for incoming traffic
Provides a specific AAL service at an AAL network service access
point (NSAP)
Segmentation and Reassembly Sublayer (SAR)
Segments higher-level user data into 48-byte cells at the sending
node and reassembles cells at receiving node
68
AAL Lingo.
69
AAL Types
AAL1: CBR voice

AAL5: data
70
ATM Physical Layer Functions
Transports ATM cells on a communications channel and

defines mechanical specs (connectors, etc.)
2 Sub-layers
Transmission Convergence Sub-layer
Maps cells into the physical layer frame format (e.g.
DS1, STS3) on transmit and delineates ATM cells in the
received bit stream
Generates HEC on transmit
Generates idle cells for cell rate decoupling, or speed
matching
Physical Medium Sub-layer
Medium dependent functions like bit transfer, bit
alignment, OEO
71
Physical Layers
Multimode Fiber: 100 Mbps using 4b/5b,

155 Mbps SONET STS-3c, 155 Mbps 8b/10b
Single-mode Fiber: 155 Mbps STS-3c, 622 Mbps
Plastic Optical Fiber: 155 Mbps
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): 155 Mbps 8b/10b
Coax: 45 Mbps, DS3, 155 Mbps
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
UTP-3 (phone wire) at 25.6, 51.84, 155 Mbps
UTP-5 (Data grade UTP) at 155 Mbps
DS1, DS3, STS-3c, STM-1, E1, E3, J2, n T1
Take-home message: Serious attempt to inter-operate with
several L1, L2 and L3 technologies
72
ATM-SONET Mapping
Cells are mapped row-wise into the frame

Cells could contain data or be empty
73
ATM Concepts: Virtual Paths & Virtual Channels
VCs: way to dial up and get bandwidth

74
Virtual circuits: Label Concept &

Rationale for Signaling
Two ways to use packets

carry entire destination address in header
carry only an identifier, a.k.a label
Labels have local significance, addresses have global
significance
Signaling protocol: fundamentally maps global addresses
or paths (sequence of addresses) to local labels
VCI
Addr.
Data
Sample
Data
ATM cell
Data
Datagram
75
VPI/VCI Assignment and Use

All packets must follow the same
path (why?)
Switches store per-VCI state: eg:
QoS info
Signaling => separation of data
and control
Small Ids can be looked up
(exact match) quickly in
hardware
harder to do this with IP
addresses (longest-prefix
match)
Setup must precede data transfer
delays short messages
Switched vs. Permanent virtual
circuits
76
ATM Switches
77
ATM Cell Structure
78
ATM Cell Structure: Different View
79
ATM Concepts: Fixed-size packets
Pros
Simpler buffer hardware
packet arrival and departure requires us to manage
fixed buffer sizes
Simpler line scheduling
each cell takes a constant chunk of bandwidth to
transmit
Easier to build large parallel packet switches
Cons
overhead for sending small amounts of data
segmentation and reassembly cost
last unfilled cell after segmentation wastes bandwidth
80
ATM Concepts: Small packet size
At 8KHz, each byte is 125 microseconds

The smaller the cell, the less an endpoint has to
wait to fill it
Low packetization delay
The smaller the packet, the larger the header
overhead
Standards body balanced the two to prescribe 48
bytes + 5 byte header = 53 bytes
=> maximal efficiency of 90.57%
81
Error Characteristics & Header Protection
82
ATM Concepts: Statistical

multiplexing with QoS
Trade off worst-case delay against speed of output trunk

Whenever long term average rate differs from peak, we
can trade off service rate for delay
Build scheduling, buffer management, policing entities to manage

the zero-sum games of delay and bandwidth
Key to building packet-switched networksShivkumar

with QoS
Kalyanaraman
83
QoS Big Picture: Control/Data Planes

C o n tr o l P la n e : S ig n a lin g + A d m is s io n C o n tr o l o r
S L A (C o n tr a c tin g ) + P r o v is io n in g /T r a ffic E n g in e e r in g
R o u te r
W o r k s t a t io n
R o u te r
In te r n e tw o r k o r W A N
R o u te r
W o r k s ta t io n
D a ta P la n e : T r a ffic c o n d itio n in g (s h a p in g , p o lic in g , m a r k in g

e tc ) + T r a ffic C la s s ific a tio n + S c h e d u lin g , B u ffe r m a n a g e m e n t
84
ATM Concepts: Service Categories
ABR (Available bit rate):

Source follows network feedback.
Max throughput with minimum loss.
UBR (Unspecified bit rate):
User sends whenever it wants. No feedback. No
guarantee. Cells may be dropped during congestion.
CBR (Constant bit rate): User declares required rate.
Throughput, delay and delay variation guaranteed.
VBR (Variable bit rate): Declare avg and max rate.
rt-VBR (Real-time): Conferencing.
Max delay guaranteed.
nrt-VBR (non-real time): Stored video.
85
CBR and VBR
86
Classes of Service
The Convergence Sublayer (CS) interprets the type and

format of incoming information based on 1 of 4 classes of
service assigned by the application
Class A: Constant bit rate (CBR), Connection oriented, strict timing

relationship between source and destination, i.e voice
Class B: Variable bit rate (VBR), Connection oriented, strict timing,
e.g. packet-mode video for video conferencing
Class C: Connection oriented VBR, not strict timing, e.g. LAN
data transfer applications such as Frame Relay
Class D: Connectionless VBR, not strict timing, e.g. LAN data
transfer applications such as IP
87
ABR vs UBR
ABR
Queue in the source
Pushes congestion to edges
Good if end-to-end ATM
Fair
Good for the provider
UBR
Queue in the network
No backpressure
Same end-to-end or backbone
Generally unfair
Simple for user
88
Guaranteed Frame Rate (GFR)
UBR with minimum cell rate (MCR) UBR+

Frame based service
Complete frames are accepted or discarded in
the switch
Traffic shaping is frame-based.
All cells of the frame have the same cell loss
priority (CLP)
All frames below MCR are given CLP =0 service.
All frames above MCR are given best effort
(CLP =1) service.
89
ATM Signaling and QoS Routing (PNNI)
90
ATM: Connection Setup
91
ATM: Control/Data/Management Planes
92
ATM: Control Plane
93
Protocol Stacks for ATM Signaling
94
Q.931 Message Format
95
Sample Q.931 Message Types
96
Information Element Formats
97
Sample Information Elements
98
ATM Bandwidth Contract
99
ATM Addresses: Basis for Signaling
Three NSAP-like (Network Service Access Point) address formats:

DCC ATM Format,
ICD ATM Format,
E.164 ATM Format
100
Address Hierarchy in ATM
Multiple formats.
All 20 Bytes long addresses.
Left-to-right hierarchical
Level boundaries can be put in any bit position
13-byte prefix => 104 levels of hierarchy possible
101
Recall: Flat vs Structured Addresses
Flat addresses: no structure in them to facilitate scalable

routing
Eg: IEEE 802 LAN addresses
Hierarchical addresses:
Network part (prefix) and host part
Helps identify direct or indirectly connected nodes
102
ATM Address Formats
Authority and Format Identifier (AFI) & IDI:

39 = ISO DCC, 47 = British Stds Institute ICD, 45 = ITU ISDN
ISDN uses E.164 numbers (up to 15 BCD digits)
ATM forum extended E.164 addresses to NSAP format.
E.164 number is filled with leading zeros to make 15 digits. A F 16 is padded to make 8
bytes.
End System Identifier (ESI): 48-bit IEEE MAC address.
Selector is for use inside the host and is not used for routing.
All ATM addresses are 20 bytes long.
103
NSAP vs SNPA Addressing: A Clarification
NSAP = Network Service Access

Point. Identifies network layer service
entry
SNPA = Sub-network point of
attachment. Identifies the interface to
sub-network
SNPA address (or part of it) is used
to carry the packet across the
network.
CLNP uses NSAP to deliver the packet
to the right entity in the host.
ATM uses NSAP-like encoding but
ATM addresses identify SNPA and not
NSAP.
104
ATM Connection Types
Permanent and Switched

Point to point
Symmetric or asymmetric bandwidth (Uni- or bidirectional)
Point-to-multipoint: Data flow in one direction only.
Data replicated by network.
Leaf Initiated Join (LIJ) or non-LIJ
105
ATM Switch: Model & Call Processing
106
ATM Connection Setup
107
ATM Connection Release
108
ATM Connection Release (contd)
109
ATM Routing: PNNI
Private Network-to-network Interface

Private Network Node Interface
110
Private Network to Node Interface (PNNI)
Link State Routing Protocol for ATM Networks
A hierarchy mechanism ensures that this

protocol scales well for large world-wide ATM
networks. A key feature of the PNNI hierarchy
mechanism is its ability to automatically configure
itself in networks in which the address structure
reflects the topology
111
PNNI Features
Scales to very large networks.

Supports hierarchical routing.
Supports QoS.
Supports multiple routing metrics and attributes.
Uses source routed connection setup.
Operates in the presence of partitioned areas.
Provides dynamic routing, responsive to changes in resource
availability.
Separates the routing protocol used within a peer group from
that used among peer groups.
Interoperates with external routing domains, not necessarily
using PNNI.
Supports both physical links and tunneling over VPCs.
112
PNNI Terminology (partial)
Peer group: A group of nodes at the same hierarchy

Border node: one link crosses the boundary
Logical group node: Representation of a group as a single
point
Child node: Any node at the next lower hierarchy level
Parent node: LGN at the next higher hierarchy level
Logical links: links between logical nodes
Peer group leader (PGL): Represents a group at the next
higher level.
Node with the highest "leadership priority" and highest ATM address is
elected as a leader.
PGL acts as a logical group node.
Uses same ATM address with a different selector value.
Peer group ID: Address prefixes up to 13 bytes

113
PNNI Terminology
114
Hierarchical Routing: PNNI
115
Hierarchical Routing (contd)
116
Topology State (QoS) Parameters
117
Call Admission Control
118
Source Routing
Source specifies route as a list of all intermediate systems

in the route (original idea in token ring)
Designated Transit List (DTL): (next slide)
Source route across each level of hierarchy
Entry switch of each peer group specifies complete
route through that group
Set of DTLs and manipulations implemented as a stack
119
DTL Example
120
Crank back and Alternate Path Routing
If a call fails along a particular route:

It is cranked back to the originator of the top DTL
The originator finds another route or
Cranks back to the generator of the higher level
source route
121
Traffic Management: ATM
122
Traffic Management Functions
Connection Admission Control (CAC): Can requested bandwidth and

quality of service be supported?
Traffic Shaping: Limit burst length. Space-out cells.
Usage Parameter Control (UPC): Monitor and control traffic at the

network entrance.
Network Resource Management: Scheduling, Queueing, virtual path

resource reservation
Selective cell discard:

Cell Loss Priority (CLP) = 1 cells may be dropped
Cells of non-compliant connections may be dropped
Frame Discarding
Feedback Control: ABR schemes

123
CAC and UPC
124
Traffic Contract Parameters
Peak Cell Rate (PCR): 1/T

Sustained Cell Rate (SCR): Average over a long period
Burst Tolerance (BT) ts : GCRA limit parameter wrt SCR
GCRA(1/Ts, ts)
Maximum Burst Size: MBS = 1+BT/(1/SCR-1/PCR)
BT [(MBS-1)(1/SCR-1/PCR), MBS(1/SCR- 1/PCR)]
Cell Transfer Delay (CTD): First bit in to last bit out
Cell Delay Variation (CDV): ~ Max CTD - Min CTD
Peak-to-peak CDV
Cell Delay Variation Tolerance (CDVT) t = GCRA limit parameter wrt
PCR GCRA(T, t)
Cell Loss Ratio (CLR): Cells lost /Totals cells sent
Minimum cell rate (MCR)
125
Peak-to-Peak CDV
126
Service Categories
127
Leaky Bucket: Basis for Policing
Provides traffic shaping: I.e. smooth bursty arrivals

Provides traffic policing: Ensure that users are sending
traffic within specified limits
Excess traffic discarded or admitted with CLP = 1
GCRA in ATM requires increment (inter-cell arrival time)
and limit (on earliness)
Two implementations: Virtual scheduling and leaky bucket
128
Generic Cell Rate Algorithm
129
GCRA: Virtual Scheduling Algorithm
130
GCRA: Leaky Bucket Algorithm
131
GCRA: Examples
132
Maximum Burst Size
133
ATM ABR: Binary Rate Scheme
DECbit scheme in many standards since 1986.

Forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) in
Frame relay
Explicit forward congestion indicator (EFCI) set to 0 at source.
Congested switches set EFCI to 1
Every nth cell, destination sends an resource management (RM) cell
to the source
134
ABR: Explicit Rate Scheme
135
ABR: Segment-by-Segment Control
136
Guaranteed Frame Rate (GFR)
UBR with minimum cell rate (MCR) UBR+

Frame based service
Complete frames are accepted or discarded in
the switch
Traffic shaping is frame based.
All cells of the frame have the same cell loss
priority (CLP)
All frames below MCR are given CLP =0 service.
All frames above MCR are given best effort (CLP
=1) service.
137
IP OVER ATM
138
ATM: Lan Emulation
139
ATM Lan Emulation (LANE)
One ATM LAN can be n virtual LANs

Logical subnets interconnected via routers
Need drivers in hosts to support each LAN
Only IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.5 frame formats
supported. (FDDI can be easily done.)
Doesn't allow passive monitoring
No token management (SMT), collisions, beacon frames.
Allows larger frames.
140
LAN Emulation (Contd)
LAN Emulation driver replaces Ethernet driver and

passes the networking layer packets to ATM driver.
Each ATM host is assigned an Ethernet address.
LAN Emulation Server translates Ethernet addresses to
ATM addresses
Hosts set up a VC and exchange packets
All software that runs of Ethernet can run on LANE
141
LAN Emulation (Contd)
142
Protocol Layering w/ LAN Emulation
143
Terminology
NDIS = Network Driver Interface Specification

ODI = Open Datalink Interface
IPX = NetWare Internetworking Protocol
LAN Emulation Software:
LAN Emulation Clients in each host
LAN Emulation Servers
LAN Emulation Configuration server (LECS)
LAN Emulation Server (LES)
Broadcast and unknown server (BUS)
144
LAN Emulation Process
Initialization:
Client gets address of LAN Emulation
Configuration Server (LECS) from its switch,
uses well-known LECS address, or well known
LECS PVC
Client gets Server's address from LECS
Registration:
Client sends a list of its MAC addresses to
Server.
Declares whether it wants ARP requests.
145
LANE Process
Address Resolution:
Client sends ARP request to Server.
Unresolved requests sent to clients, bridges.
Server, Clients, Bridges answer ARP
Client setups a direct connection
Broadcast/Unknown Server (BUS):
Forwards multicast traffic to all members
Clients can also send unicast frames for
unknown addresses
146
ATM Virtual LANs
147
IP over ATM
How many VCs do we need for n protocols?

Packet encapsulation [RFC1483]
How to find ATM addresses from IP addresses
Address resolution [RFC1577]
How to handle multicast? [MARS, RFC 2022]
How do we go through n subnets on a large ATM
network? [NHRP]
148
IP over ATM: RFCs 1483, 1577
149
RFC 1483: Packet Encapsulation
Question: Given an ATM link between two routers,how

many VCs should we setup?
Answer 1: One VC per Layer 3 protocol. Null
Encapsulation: No sharing. VC based multiplexing.
150
Encapsulation (RFC 1483): Contd
Answer 2: Share a VC using Logical Link

Control (LLC) Subnetwork Access Protocol
(SNAP). LLC Encapsulation
Protocol Types: 0x0800 = IP, 0x0806 = ARP,
0x809B = AppleTalk, 0x8137 = IPX
151
Address Resolution: ATMARP
IP address: 123.145.134.65
ATM address: 47.0000 1 614 999 2345.00.00.AA....
Issue: IP Address ATM Address translation
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Inverse ATM ARP: VC IP Address
Solution: ATMARP servers
152
RFC 1577: Classical IP over ATM
ATM stations are divided in to Logical IP Subnets (LIS)

ATMARP server translates IP addresses to ATM
addresses.
Each LIS has an ATMARP server for resolution
IP stations set up a direct VC with the destination or the
router and exchange packets.
153
IP Multicast over ATM
Multicast Address Resolution Servers (MARS)

Internet Group Multicast Protocol (IGMP)
Multicast group members send IGMP join/leave
messages to MARS
Hosts wishing to send a multicast send a
resolution request to MARS
MARS returns the list of addresses
MARS distributes membership update
information to all cluster members
154
Next-Hop Resolution Protocol (NHRP)
Routers assemble packets Slow

NHRP servers can provide ATM address for the
edge device to any IP host
Can avoid routers if both source and destination
are on the same ATM network.
155
Multi-Protocol over ATM (MPOA)
MPOA= LANE + NHRP+

Extension of LANE
Uses NHRP to find the shortcut to the next hop
No routing (reassembly) in the ATM network
156
MPOA (contd)
LANE operates at layer 2

RFC 1577 operates at layer 3
MPOA operates at both layer 2 and layer 3 MPOA can
handle non-routable as well as routable protocols
Layer 3 protocol runs directly over ATM Can use ATM
QoS
MPOA uses LANE for its layer 2 forwarding
157
ATM interfaces w/ Internetworking
158

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ISDN, B-ISDN, X.

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Switched Packet-Data Services

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A Telephony View of Convergence

Separate Voice network (PSTN) and Data Networks

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Switched Packet-Data Services

After the success of T1, the telephone carriers saw the

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Signaling and setup of a virtual circuit (I.e. nailing down a

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ISDN/B-ISDN vision of an end-to-end integrated digital network:

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X.25 -> Frame relay/ATM: reduction of hop-by-hop

Integration (coupling) of too many features led to slow

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Electrical and mechanical specifications of the interface

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Link Access Procedure for half-duplex links (LAPX): Teletex

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Normal Response Mode (NRM): Response from secondary

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Information Frames: User data

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X.25 Packet Level: Layer 3

Packet Level = End-to-end for X.25 networks

Packet level procedures:

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X.25 Packet Level (Layer 3) Signaling Operation

Redundant signaling and reliability functions at L2 and L3!

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GFI = Packet formatting information

Logical Channel Group and Channel Numbers:

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(Layer 3) Packet Format (Contd)

3-bit and 7-bit sequence number options possible

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ISDN: End-to-End Digital Services Vision

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