By

Y. P. Singh
&
Solomon Das
Forest Pathology Division
Forest Research Institute
Dehradun-248 006
singh_yp@rediffmail.com
Soil is a thin layer of material on the Earth's surface in
which plants have their roots. It is made up of many
things, such as weathered rock and decayed plant and
animal matter. Soil is formed over a long period of time.
Soil Formation takes place when many things interact,
such as air, water, plant life, animal life, rocks, and
chemicals.
A dynamic natural body on the surface of the earth in
which plants grow, composed of mineral and organic
materials and living forms.
The collection of natural bodies occupying parts of the
earth’s surface that support plants and that have
properties due to the integrated effect of climate and
living matter acting upon parent material, as conditioned
by relief, over periods of time. Source: Buckman, H.O
- litter layer; forested areas
- top soil; high organic content

- eluviation of clay, iron,

aluminium
sand & silt accumulation
- illuviation: left behind of
eluviated
materials
- unconsolidated parent material

- solid rock
Organic matter is the partially decomposed remains of soil organisms, animals and
plant life
It makes up only a small fraction of the soil (normally 2 to 10%)
 Organic matter retains moisture (humus holds up to 90% of its weight in water), and is
able to absorb and store nutrients.
Importantly, organic matter is the primary food source for microorganisms and other
forms of soil life in dryland agriculture
Incorporating large amounts of high-carbon material (i.e. wheat stubble) can deprive
plants of soil derived nitrogen in the short term
Organic matter contributes to the development of the darker friable topsoil that retains
moisture and cycles nutrients for plant growth
Organic matter is divided into
two main categories:
organic residues, i.e., plant
material, manures, etc. in some
stage of partial decay, and
stable soil humus

Stable soil humus, a small percentage

of total soil organic matter, is the end
product of organic matter
decomposition when performed under
anaerobic, or oxygen free, conditions,
beneath the soil surface. The
resulting organic structures can be
hundreds of years old and are
considered a slow renewable
resource. Organic residues formed at
shallow depths add little, if any, to
the reserves of stable soil humus
All groups of microorganisms are represented in most soils, and
because of their presence soil is transformed from an inert mass of
mineral and organic residues to a dynamic living system
Protozoa
Fungi
Algae
Bacteria
Factors which effects the Aeration:Microbes consume
population of soil oxygen from soil air and give
microorganisms: out carbon dioxide. In the
Aeration absence of such gaseous
PH exchange, carbon dioxide
Moisture accumulates in soil air and
Temperature becomes toxic to the microbes
Soluble minerals
amount of organic material  Moisture:In the presence of
Changes inorganic compounds excess water, waterlogging,
Appearance of the soil anaerobic condition occur the
Fertility aerobes become suppressed
Degree of aggregation. and inactive
 Moisture holding capacity
Temperature:Temperature is
the most important
environmental factor
influencing the biological
processes and the microbial
activity. Most of the soil
organisms are mesophiles and
0
pH:Bacteria prefer near neutral to Fertility: Numbers and diversity of
slightly alkaline reaction between soil organisms maintains soil fertility
pH 6.5 and 8.0; fungi grow in and productive quality of soil
acidic reaction between pH 4.5
and 6.5; actinomycetes prefer
slightly alkaline conditions

Degree of aggregation: Some

organisms may play a beneficial
role indirectly be creating better
soil physical condition, e.g. by
improving soil aggregation. Soil
microorganisms cause soil
aggregation probably by the gum
or polysaccharides produced by
them. Azotobacter, Beijerinckia
and Rhizobium are examples of
gum producing bacteria

Amount of organic material: It

enhances the population of
microorganism, since they depend
Soil health refers to the condition of the soil and its potential to sustain
biological functioning, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant
and animal health. The resistance of a soil refers to its capacity to retain
function during stress or disturbance, whilst its resilience refers to how
quickly it recovers after stress or disturbance.
1. Soil organic matter equilibrium maintained
The soil is composed of approximately 90-98% minerals and only 2-10% organic matter. Soil organic matter
(SOM) consists of all materials found in, or on soil that originate from organic material. It comprises both
living and dead organisms in various stages of decomposition and ranges in age from recent inputs to
thousands of years old. Of the SOM present in soil, approximately 15% of this is ‘living’ (made up of roots,
fauna and micro-organisms). The microbial component of this ‘living’ pool cycles rapidly and is considered
essential for organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling, degradation of chemicals and soil
stabilisation.

2. Soil fertility is balanced

A healthy soil is not only fertile, but productive. Factors which limit plant growth such as weeds, subsoil
constraints, disease and climate can limit productivity even where soil fertility is adequate. In understanding
the interactions between soil fertility and plant growth, it is necessary to recognise that "the yield of a plant is
limited by a deficiency of any one essential element, even though all others are present in adequate amount"

3. Water entry, storage & supply optimised

In most agricultural pursuits, production is limited by the capacity of soil to store and supply water to the
plant. Soil texture and structure influence the amount fo water able to be extracted from soil by influencing
the size of the 'bucket' and the depth to which root growth can extract water. Optimising plant nutrition results
in vigorous growth and increases the uptake of available water. Better water use efficiency slows leaching of
nutrients and deep drainage which may contribute to groundwater recharge, rising water tables and off-site
environmental impacts.
4. Enhanced soil biological function
A myriad of organisms live in soil, some of which perform beneficial functions such as organic
matter decomposition and nutrient cycling, whilst others are associated with plant disease. Some
of these organisms are visible to the naked eye (earthworms, mites, insects, etc.), but most are
microscopic (fungi, bacteria).

5. Supports productive land uses

Inherent soil properties and position in the landscape are factors that determine the capacity of a
soil to sustainably support different land uses. Limited opportunities exist to change soil depth,
parent material and soil texture which influence soil processes and management. We must
consider whether the land is capable of supporting long term ecological and profitable production
for example, without degrading soil condition

6. Enhances environmental & community health and well-being

Soil supports plant and animal health, as well as provides materials for industry and
infrastructure - producing the food, fuel and fibre to nourish, clothe and provide energy to the
world. Yet historically, agriculture has accelerated the decline in the soil resource.
Soil fertility is the combined effects of three major interacting components.
These are the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of the
soil. The physical and chemical characteristics of soil are far better
understood than that of the biological component, therefore we know quite
a lot about the desired chemical and physical status of soils. It is still
difficult to define the desired biological status of soil because they are so
dynamic and changes occur in much shorter time periods than physical and
chemical changes.

Biological fertility, while difficult to define, provides us with great

opportunities for land management and monitoring because of its dynamic
nature. It is thought that, the biological state of soils may be able to
provide early warning of land degradation, therefore enable us to employ
more sustainable land management practices
The biological components of soil perform a number of important processes, soil biological
fertility :
1.Soil organisms are most abundant in the surface layers of soil,
2.Soil organic matter is necessary for nutrient cycling and soil aggregation,
3.Maximum soil biological diversity depends on the diversity of organic matter and habitats,
4.Nitrogen fixing bacteria form specific associations with legumes under specific conditions ,
5.Nitrogen is released during organic matter breakdown, either into soil or into the soil microbial
biomass,
6.Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can increase phosphate uptake into plants in P-deficient soils,
7.Soil amendments can alter the physical and chemical environment of soil organisms,
8.Some crop rotations and tillage practices decrease the suitability of soil for plant pathogens,
9.Production systems based on soil biological fertility can be profitable,
10.Soil biological processes develop slowly, and the time required will differ for different soils,
environments and land management practices.
1. Soil erosion should be controlled to minimise loss of soil organisms,
2. Plant organic matter should be retained to maximise nutrient cycling and soil
aggregation processes,
3. Some disturbance of soil is necessary to maximise soil biological diversity,
4. Nitrogen fixing bacteria should be selected that match the host, soil characteristics
(such as pH) and environmental conditions,
5. Inputs of nitrogen fertiliser should be calculated to complement nitrogen cycling
from organic matter
6. Inputs of phosphorus fertiliser should be calculated to complement and enhance the
activities of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,
7. Any substance added to soil should be assessed in terms of its effects on soil
biological processes and soil biological diversity,
8. Crop rotations and tillage practices should be selected to avoid development of soil
conditions that enhance the growth and survival of plant pathogens,
9. The capacity of a management practice to produce a commercial product should be
considered in parallel with its capacity to maintain and/or increase soil biological
fertility,
10.Sufficient time should be allowed for establishment or restoration of a level of soil
biological fertility appropriate for particular soils and land management.