Anatomy & Physiology-II

The Nervous System

Mr. Muhammad Nasir Khan, RMISoN

How Neurons Communicate at

Synapses

Figure 7.10

The Reflex Arc

Reflex rapid, predictable, and
involuntary responses to stimuli
Reflex arc direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

Figure 7.11a

Simple Reflex Arc

Figure 7.11b, c

Types of Reflexes and Regulation

Autonomic reflexes
Smooth muscle regulation
Heart and blood pressure regulation
Regulation of glands
Digestive system regulation
Somatic reflexes
Activation of skeletal muscles

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Adultbrainhas100billionneurons.
Weightofbrain1300g
Liesincranialcavity

Protection of the Central Nervous

System
Scalp and skin
Skull and vertebral column
Meninges

Figure 7.16a

Protection of the Central Nervous

System
Cerebrospinal fluid
Blood brain barrier

Figure 7.16a

Meninges
The brain and spinal cord are completely
surrounded by 3 layers of tissue, The Meninges;

Dura mater
Double-layered external covering:
Periosteum attached to surface of the
skull
Meningeal layer outer covering of the
brain

Meninges
Arachnoid mater
Middle layer
CSF is present in the space below arachnoid
mater (Sub arachnoid space)

Pia mater
Internal layer
Adheres to the surface of the brain

Pia mater & Arachnoid mater are collectively

called Lepto meninges.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Fluidfoundinandaroundthecentralnervous
system(CNS)organs,thebrainandspinalcord.
8090%CSFisproducedbyependymalcells
withinthelateralventricles,remainderis
producedbysimilarcellsinthirdandfourth
ventricles.
Theseependymalcells,theirsupporttissue,
andtheassociatedbloodvesselsarecalled
choroidplexuses.

Ventricles and Location of the

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.17a

Ventricles and Location of the

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.17b

CSF Composition
Secreted continuously at a rate of about 0.5ml per
minute; 720ml per day. The volume remains fairly
constant at about 150ml, as absorption keeps pace
with the secretion.
CSF pressure Normal 8 -10cm H2O
Appearance; clear, colorless
Water
Mineral salts
Glucose: 4085 mg/dL.
Protein (total): 1545 mg/dL.
Leukocytes (WBC): 05/L (adults / children)
Specific gravity: 1.0051.009

CSFcirculation:
Choroidplexusproduces~720ml/dayofCSF
bodyproduces,absorbsandreplenishesthetotalvolume
ofCSFabout34timesdaily.)
CSFproducedinthelateralventriclesflowsintothe3rd
ventriclethroughanopeningcalledinterventricular
foramen
Flowsintothroughacanalcalledcerebralaqueductinto
the4thventricle
Passesthroughpairedlateralaperturesandamedian
apertureintothesubarachnoidspace
Flowsthroughthesubarachnoidspacesurroundingthe
brain(smallamountentersthecentralcanaloftheSC)

Functions of CSF
Supports and protects the brain & spinal cord.
Keeps the brain and spinal cord moist
Supplies nutrients to the nervous system tissue.
Removes waste products from cerebral
metabolism.

Brain Anatomy

The Brain constitutes about one fiftieth of the

body weight & lies within the cranial cavity.

Regions of the Brain

Cerebrum(Cerebral
hemispheres)
Diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus

Brain stem
Midbrain
Figure 7.12

Pons
Medulla Oblangata

Cerebellum

CerebrumThelargestpartofthebrain.Itis
dividedintotwohemispheres,eachofwhichis
dividedintofourlobes.

Cerebrum

Cerebrum

Cerebellum

It is comprised of right and left hemispheres connected by the

a band of white mater called as corpus callosum.
The surface of the brain is convoluted to create more surface
area.

CerebralCortexTheoutermostlayerofgray
mattermakingupthesuperficialaspectofthe
cerebrum.

Cerebral Cortex

Cerebral

Cortex

CEREBRALFEATURES
GyriorConvulsionsElevatedridgeswindingaroundof
thebrain.
SulciSmallgroovesdividingthegyri
e.g.1)CentralSulcusDividestheFrontalLobefrom
theParietalLobe
2)Parietaloccipitalsulcus
FissuresDeepgrooves,generallydividinglarge
regions/lobesofthebrain
1)LongitudinalFissureDividesthetwoCerebral
2)TransverseFissureSeparatestheCerebrumfrom
theCerebellum
3)Sylvian/LateralFissureDividestheTemporalLobe
fromtheFrontalandParietalLobes

Lobes of the Cerebrum

Fissures (deep
grooves) divide the
cerebrum into 4 lobes
Lobes of the
cerebrum
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe

CerebralLobesandtheirGeneralFunctions
Frontallobe.Thetop,frontregionsofeachofthecerebral
hemispheresusedforreasoning,emotions,judgment,and
voluntarymotormovement
Parietallobe.Themiddlelobeofeachcerebral

hemispherebetweenthefrontalandoccipitallobes;it
containsimportantsensorycenters.

Occipitallobe.Theregionatthebackofeachcerebral
hemispherethatcontainsthecentersofvisionandreading
ability(locatedatthebackofthehead).
Temporallobe.Theregionatthelowersideofeach

cerebralhemisphere;containscentersofhearing
andsmell(locatedatthesidesofthehead).

Functional Areas of the Cerebrum

Sensory areas receives impulses from
the bodys sensory receptors
Motor areas sends impulses to
skeletal muscles
Association areas concerned with
integration and processing of complex
mental functions such as intelligence,
memory, reasoning, judgement &
emotions.

Functional Areas of Cerebral Cortex

Motor areas of Cerebral Cortex
Primary motor area lies in the frontal lobe ant. To central sulcus
Brocas area motor speech area, lies in frontal lobe above lateral sulcus

Sensory areas of Cerebral Cortex

The somatosensory area lies immediately behind the central sulcus in
the parietal lobe.
The auditory area - Hearing area, lies in temporal lobe
The Olfactory area Smell area, lies deep within the temporal lobe
The Gustatory area Taste area, lies just above the lateral sulcus
The visual area lies in occipital lobe

Association Areas
The Premotor area lies in frontal lobe anterior to motor area
The prefrontal area - extend anteriorly from premotor area.
Wernickes area Sensory speech, area lies in temporal lobe.

Sensory and Motor Areas of the

Cerebral Cortex

Figure 7.14

Layers of the Cerebrum

Gray matter
Outer layer
Composed of
neuron cell
bodies

Figure 7.13a

Layers of the Cerebrum

White matter
Middle part of
the cerebrum
Composed of
nerve cell
processes

Figure 7.13a

Layers of the Cerebrum

Basal Ganglia
Groups of cell bodies (nuclei) deep within
the cerebral hemispheres.
Act as a unified functional unit.
Their functions include initiation and fine
control of complex movement & learned
coordinated activities such as posture and
walking
Figure 7.13a

Functions of Cerebral Cortex

Mental activities involved in memory,
intelligence, sense of responsibility, thinking,
reasoning, moral sense and learning.
Sensory perception, including the perception
of pain, touch, sight, hearing, taste & smell.
Initiation and control of skeletal muscle
contraction (voluntary movement)
Figure 7.13a