LECTURE-11

NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
- ECM, EDM, LBM and EBM

NIKHIL R. DHAR, Ph. D

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering
BUET

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Electrochemical Machining is
the controlled removal of metal
by anodic dissolution in an
electrolytic medium. It is based
upon
Faradays
law
of
electrolysis. In this process the
workpiece acts as the anode and
the tool as cathode, as shown in
Figure. The two electrodes are
closely placed, with a gap of
about 0.5 mm, and immersed in
an electrolyte (a solution of
sodium chloride).

Schematic illustration of the

electrochemical-machining process.
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When a potential difference is maintained between the electrodes, the ions existing
in the electrolyte migrate towards them. Positively charged ions are attached
towards the cathode and negatively charged ions are attached towards the anode.
This initiates the flow of current in the electrolyte. The work is generally kept
stationary and the tool is fed in a linear direction. The metal from the work is
removed due to ion migration towards the tool. The tool is prevented from damage
by pumping a strong stream of electrolyte at high pressure (15kg/cm 2). No spark is
produced in this process and the temperature generate is low enough to cause any
metallurgical changes in the workpiece.
On application of electrical energy, the metallic ion is pulled out of the workpiece.
The positive metallic ion reacts with the negative ion present in the electrolytic
solution forming metallic hydroxides and other components, resulting in ionic
dissolution of metal with the formation of precipitates are washed away by the
electrolyte.
In this case, the tool does not come in contact with the workpiece, and the wear
and tear of the tool is negligible. Machining takes place at low voltage and the
metal removal rate is high. Dimension up to 0.05 mm can be easily controlled and
the metal workpiece in not damaged thermally.
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Examples of Parts Made by ECM

Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy (b) Thin
slots on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
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Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)

Wheel is a rotating cathode with abrasive particles

Electrochemical machining + conventional grinding

(a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-grinding process. (b) Thin slot

produced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.

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Electrolytes
Functions of Electrolyte

It carries the current between the tool and the work piece
It removes the product of machining from the cutting region
It dissipates heat produced in the operation
It helps the machining reactions necessary for anodic dissolution to take place

Selection of Electrolytes
Choice of proper electrolyte is of vital importance on the following considerations:

Machining rate
Dimensional accuracy
Surface texture and
Surface integrity

Electrolyte should possess the following characteristics

It should have high electrical conductivity

It should machine at high current efficiency
It should produce good surface finish and integrity
The surface texture produced is dependent on the electrolyte composition and material
structure.

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Electrolyte Flow Arrangement

Correct electrolyte flow across the tool is essential for proper machining. Attention
should be paid to the tool shape where cavitation of the electrolyte is likely to
occur. Tool design must permit a uniform electrolyte flow in all machining areas.
Excessive flows are not desirable as they cause tool erosion. Basically, two methods
of flow are used, namely divergent flow and convergent flow. The convergent flow
method provides a smooth flow of electrolyte. The electrolyte is admitted through a
chamber called dam to pressurize the area outside the work and the tool. The
advantages of the system are:

More uniform and predictable side over cut and front machining gap
Improved surface finish
Reduced possibility of arcing
Much cleaner operating conditions
Elimination of undesirable machining due to stray currents

It is, however, to be noted that cost of tooling with convergent flow is more than
that with divergent flow system.

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Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications

Advantages

ECM has many advantages when compared to conventional machining.

The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress
There is no tool wear during Electrochemical machining
Non-rigid and open work pieces can be machined easily as there is no contact
between the tool and workpiece
Complex geometrical shapes can be machined repeatedly and accurately
ECM is a time saving process when compared with conventional machining
During drilling, deep holes can be made or several holes at once.
ECM deburring can deburr difficult to access areas of parts.
Fragile parts which cannot take more loads and also brittle material which tend to
develop cracks during machining can be machined easily through ECM
Surface finishes of 25 in. can be achieved during ECM

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Disadvantages

The cost of the equipment is very high.

Rigid fixturing is required to withstand the high electrolyte flow rates.
Difficult in designing a proper tooling system
Corrosion-free materials requirement for the structure and electrolyte handling systems
The tool is more difficult to make since it must be insulated to maintain correct
conductive paths to the work piece.
Hydrogen liberation at the tool surface may cause hydrogen-embitterment of the surface
Spark damage may become sometimes more problematic
Fatigue property of the machined component may reduce as compared to conventional
techniques, so may need further treatments.

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Application

ECM is to be applied only in specialized areas where conventional machining is not

feasible. One of the main applications of ECM is in the aerospace industry to machine
difficult-to-machine materials and complex shaped parts.
Various industrial techniques have been developed on the basis of this ECM
principle such as:
Electrochemical cutting
Electrochemical ECM
Electrochemical broaching
Electrochemical drilling
Electrochemical deburring
Electrochemical machining is used for the manufacture of dies, press and glass-making
molds, turbine and compressor blades for gas-turbine engine, the generation of
passages, cavities, holes and slots in parts. ECM deburring is used for deburring of gears,
hydraulic and fuel-system parts, small electronic components and engine parts.

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Electrical-Discharge Machining (EDM)

EDM is a machining method primarily used for hard metals or those that
would be impossible to machine with traditional techniques. One critical
limitation, however, is that EDM only works with materials that are
electrically conductive. EDM or Electrical Discharge Machining is
especially well-suited for cutting intricate contours or delicate cavities that
would be difficult to produce with a grinder, an end mill or other cutting
tools. Metals that can be machined with EDM include hardened tool-steel,
titanium, carbide, inconel and kovar.
EDM is sometimes called "spark machining" because it removes metal by
producing a rapid series of repetitive electrical discharges. These electrical
discharges are passed between an electrode and the piece of metal being
machined. The small amount of material that is removed from the
workpiece is flushed away with a continuously flowing fluid. The repetitive
discharges create a set of successively deeper craters in the work piece
until the final shape is produced.
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There are two primary EDM methods:

Ram EDM and

Wire EDM.

The primary difference between the two involves the electrode that is used to
perform the machining. In a typical ram EDM application, a graphite electrode is
machined with traditional tools. The specially-shaped electrode is connected to the
power source, attached to a ram, and slowly fed into the workpiece. The entire
machining operation is usually performed while submerged in a fluid bath. In wire
EDM a very thin wire serves as the electrode. Special brass wires are typically used;
the wire is slowly fed through the material and the electrical discharges actually cut
the workpiece. Wire EDM is usually performed in a bath of water.

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Ram Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM) Process : In this process, the

control of erosion of the metal is achieved by the rapidly recurring spark discharges produced
between two electrodes, one tool and the other work, and spark impinging against the surface
of the workpiece which must be an electrically conducting body. A suitable gap
(approximately 0.025 to 0.075 mm) known as spark gap, is maintained between the tool and
the work by a servomotor which is actuated by the difference between a reference voltage and
the gap breakdown voltage, which feeds the tool downwards towards the workpiece.

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The metal removal rate depends on the spark gap maintained. If both electrodes are made of
same material, it has been found that the greatest erosion takes place upon the positive
electrode (anode). Therefore, in order to remove maximum metal and have minimum wear on
the tool, the tool is made cathode and the workpiece as anode. The two electrodes are
separated by a dielectric fluid medium. The spark is a transient electric discharge across the
gap between workpiece and tool. When the potential difference (voltage) across the gap
becomes sufficiently large, the dielectric fluid becomes ionized and breaks down to produce
an electrically conductive spark channel and the condensers discharge current across the
channel in the form of a spark. When the voltage drops to about 12 volts, the spark discharge
extinguishes and the dielectric fluid once again becomes deionized.
The condensers start to recharge and the process repeats itself. The spark occurs in an
interval of from 10 to 30 microseconds and with a current density of approximately 15-500
amp/mm2. The repetitive sparks release their energy in the form of local heat, as a result of
which, local temperature of the order of 12000C is reached at the spot hit by electrons, and
at such a high pressure and temperature some metal is melted and eroded. Some of it is
vaporized and under it fine material particles are carried away by dielectric medium (liquid)
circulated around it, forming a crater on the workpiece. The time interval between the sparks
is so short that the heat is unable to conduct into the tool and work. Fig.4.12 shows the
schematic representation of the process illustrating the various components involved in the
process.
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Tool Material
The selection of the tool material depends upon many factors such as:

It should have low erosion rate or good work to tool wear ratio
It should be electrically conductive
It should have good machinability
It should have low electrical resistance
It should have high melting point
It should have high electron emission.
One of the major draw back of EDM is the wear ratio of the tool. The wear ratio may be
defined as:

Loss of tool material (volumetric) in a given time

Wear ratio
Volume of matel removed from the work in the same time

The less the wear ratio, the better it is. Wear ratio for brass electrode is 1:1. For most
other metallic electrodes, it is about 3:1 or 4:1. With graphite (with the highest melting
point, 3500OC), the wear ratio may be range from 5:1 upto 50:1.

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Tool Wear

During the EDM process the tool (i.e. the cathode) also gets eroded which is undesirable
no doubt but unavoidable too. However the wear of the cathode is much less than that of
the anode, the reasons for this are given below:
The positive ions of the dielectric fluid strike the cathode whereas the electrons to the
anode. The mass of electrons is much less than that of the ions but it moves with
much greater velocity than the ions do. So the cathode gets eroded much less than
the anode.
Due to the spark a compressive force is created on the cathode which helps in
reduction of cathode erosion.
The dielectric fluids are usually hydrocarbons. Due to its pyrolysis, gases evolve
which produce carbon particles. These particles get deposited on the heated cathode
as a thin layer which protects the tool from wear.

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Dielectric Fluid
Purpose

It acts as a coolant for the workpiece and the tool

It acts as an insulating medium during charging operation of the condenser and provides
the correct condition for efficient spark discharge and its conduction when ionized
(during discharging).
It carries away the eroded metal particles.
It acts as a coolant in quenching the spark and helps arcing to be prevented.

Essential Requirements

It should have an optimum viscosity. Because lower viscosity unable the fluid to carry
away the metal particle efficiently at a flow velocity. Whereas higher viscosity imposes
restriction on the velocity of liquid itself.
It should not react with the work material, the tool or the container etc.
It should be inflammable, cheap and easily available
It should not evolve gases and toxic vapors during operation
It must be a hydrocarbon.

The various dielectric fluids are; kerosene, transformer oil, white spirit, oil etc: Some conducting
powers such as aluminum or fine and light density graphite if added to the dielectric fluid, the metal
removal rate increases.
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Advantages, Disadvantage and Applications

Advantages

Metal of any hardness, toughness or brittleness could be machined by this process

provided they are conductor of electricity.
Dies of harder materials like alloy steels tungsten carbide etc., for molding, forging,
extrusion and press tools could be reproduced.
Dies can be machined even in the hardened state
Any complicated shape that can be made on the tool can be reproduced on a workpiece
Very fine holes can be drilled accurately since the cutting forces are too small
The accuracy of work produced can be as high as 0.005 mm on finishing operations
More suitable for producing surfaces that are to be used for wear resistance because the
surface produced has micro-craters (appear as shot blasted surface) which can contain
lubricants effectively
There is no physical connection between the tool and the workpiece. There is no cutting
force except the blasting pressure. So cylinder and fragile workpieces could be machined
without causing any damage to them
The machining time especially for harder work materials is much less than conventional
machining process.

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Disadvantages

The power requirement is very high compared to conventional processes (120 J/mm2)
Some of the materials may become brittle at room temperature and there is some chance
of surface cracking
Sometimes a layer of 0.01 to 0.10 mm containing 4% carbon may get deposited on steel
workpieces
The metal removal rate is comparatively low (75 mm3/sec)
It is difficult to reproduce sharp corners
In some cases the microstructure of the workpiece surface gets distorted necessitating
subsequent etching.

Applications

EDM is widely used for machining burr free intricate shapes, narrow slots and blind
cavities etc., for example, sinking of dies for molding, die casting, plastic molding, wire
drawing, compacting, cold heading, forging, extrusion and press tools. Almost any
geometry (negative of tool geometry) can be generated on a workpiece if a suitable tool
can be fabricated (the use of punch as a tool to machine its own mating die is commonly
employed in EDM method). EDM is particularly useful for machining of small holes,
orifices or slot in diesel-fuel injection nozzles, or in aircraft engines, air brake valves etc.

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Wire Electrical Discharge Machining: The wire-cut EDM uses a very thin wire
0.02 to 0.3 mm in diameter as an electrode and machines a workpiece with electrical
discharge like a band saw by moving either the workpiece or wire. Erosion of the metal
utilizing the phenomenon of spark discharge is the very same as in conventional EDM. The
prominent feature of a moving wire is that a complicated cutout can be easily machined
without using a forming electrode.

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Wire-cut EDM machine basically consists of a machine proper composed of a

workpiece contour movement control unit (NC tension; a machining power supply
which applies electrical energy to the wire electrode; and a unit or copying unit),
workpiece mounting table and wire driver section for accurately moving the wire
at constant tension; a machine power supply which applies electrical energy to the
wire electrode; and a unit which supplies a dielectric fluid (distilled water) with
constant specific resistance. The various features of wire cut EDM process are:

Forming electrode adapted to product shape is not required

Electrode wear is negligible
Machined surfaces are smooth
Geometrical and dimensional tolerances are tight
Relative tolerance between punch and die is extremely high and die life is extended
Straight holes can be produced to close tolerance
EDM machine can be operated unattended for long time at high operating rate
Machining is done without requiring any skill.

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Advantages

Saving of stages in sequential tools, due to absence of split lines in the die, hence
permitting more punch opening per stage.
Molded parts will not have flashes, as the moulds with draught can be made without
vertical divisions.
Tool manufacturing and storage is not required.
Heat treatment distortions are totally avoided, as the workpieces are hardened before
cutting.
Cycle time for die manufacture is shorter, as the whole work is done on one machine.
Inspection time is reduced, due to single piece construction of dies with high positioning
accuracy.
The time utilization of wire cut EDM is high, as it can cut right through the day
Economical, even for small batch production, including prototypes, as most of the
programming can be easily done.
High surface finishes, with low thermal affected zone depths are obtained. This reduces
the manual finishing operation time
Avoids rejections, due to initial planning and checking the program

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Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

In laser beam machining, the source of energy is a laser (Light Amplification by
Simulated Emission of Radiation), which focuses optical energy on the surface of
the workpiece. A laser beam can melt and vaporize diamond when focused by lens
system, the energy density being of the order of 105 kW/cm2. Such tremendous
energy release is due to certain atoms which have higher energy level and oscillate
with particular frequency.
There are several types of lasers used in manufacturing operations, e.g., solid state,
gas, liquid and semi conductor. For machining and welding, high power lasers are
required and, in general, only the solid state lasers can provide the required power
levels.
The most commonly used solid-state laser is the ruby laser (crystalline aluminium
oxide or sapphire). These lasers are fabricated into rods about 150 mm long and
their ends are furnished to close optical tolerances. Figure in the next slide shows
a schematic view of laser beam machining process.

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(a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b) and (c) Examples of holes produced
in nonmetallic parts by LBM.
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Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

The ruby crystal is doped with a small amount of chromium oxide. The laser is
pumped by a flash of high intensity light (xenon-filled flash lamp). The xenon
lamp is fired by discharging a large capacitor through it (electric power of 250 to
1000 watts may be needed for this). The intense radiation from the lamp excites
fluorescent impurity atoms (chromium atoms) to a higher energy level. When the
atoms fall back to the original energy level through a series of energy levels, an
intense beam of visible light is emitted. When this light is reflected back from the
coated rod ends, more atoms are excited and stimulated to return to their ground
level. This chain reaction results in a stimulated avalanche of light, some of which
is transmitted through the reflecting coatings (about 80% reflective). This light is
highly coherent in time and space, that is, it has a very narrow frequency band, is
highly in phase, and is quite parallel. When this light is focused with ordinary
lenses at spot on the workpiece, high energy density is obtained which will melt
and vaporize the metal.

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Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications

Advantages

There is no direct contact between tool and workpiece. As such no tool wear problems
are faced. Metal, non-metal irrespective of their brittleness and hardness, and even soft
metals like plastics and rubber can be machined.
Laser beam can be sent to longer distances, without diffraction. It can also be focused at
one place thereby generating lot of heat. It is thus possible to weld, drill and cut areas not
readily accessible.
The advantages of laser welding are that heat treated and magnetic material can be
welded without losing their properties all over the material except a small region of heataffection. Laser welding is possible in any environment through transparent materials
and magnetic fields as well. Distortion is negligible and any two materials can be joined
together. However, it is important that the vaporization of the metal must be avoided.
Micro-sized holes can be laser drilled in difficult-to-machine or refractory materials.
Precision location is ensured by focusing of the beam. Deep holes of very short diameter
can be drilled by using unidirectional multiple pulses.
Beam configuration and size of exposed area can be easily controlled.

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Disadvantages

High initial cost and short life of flash lamp

Safety procedures to be followed strictly
Over-all low efficiency (0.3% to 0.5%)
Very low material removal rate
Notable to drill too deep holes
Machined holes not round and straight and
No possibility of machining some plastics which bum or char.

Applications

Used for making very small holes (holes in rubber baby bottle nipples), difficult welding
of non-conductive and refractory materials, cutting complex profiles in thin and hard
materials. Also used for partial cutting or engraving.
Can be used for mass micro-machining production.
Can also be used for selective heat treating of materials
It is also sometimes used for dynamic balancing of rotating parts.
It is very useful for producing very fine and minute holes etc.

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Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

The source of energy in electron beam machining is high velocity electrons, which
strikes the surface of the workpiece and generate heat. In electron beam
machining, electrons emitted by a hot surface and accelerated by a voltage of 50 to
200 kV are focused to a very small areas on the workpiece. This stream of high
energy electrons posses a very high energy density (of the order of 104 kW / mm2)
and when this narrow stream strikes the workpiece (by impact), the kinetic energy
of the electrons is converted to powerful heat energy which is quite sufficient to
melt and vaporize any material. Even though, the electrons can penetrate metals to
a depth of only a few atomic layers and can melt metal to a depth of 25 mm or
more. The electron beam which travels at about half to three-fourth the velocity of
sound is focused on the workpiece by electro-static or electro-magnetic lenses.
Electron beam machining done in a high vacuum chamber to eliminate the
scattering of the electron beam as it contacts the gas molecules on the workpiece.
Figure in the next slide shows schematic view of electron beam machining
process.

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Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM, this process
requires a vacuum, so workpiece size is limited to the size of the vacuum chamber.
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For observing the process of machining an optical viewing system consisting of

lens and prism is also incorporated. The beam can be controlled very accurately
and focused on a width as small as 0.002 mm. The electrons on impingement over
the workpiece heat it up and raise its temperature to a value as high as 5000C.
Due to this the material melts and vaporizes locally.
Recent developments have made it possible to machine outside the vacuum
chamber. In this arrangement, the necessary vacuum is maintained within the
electron gun proper by removing gases as soon as they enter. The fully vacuum
system is more costly, but it has the advantage that no contaminating gases are
present and the electron gun can be located at a considerable distance from the
workpiece.

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Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications

Advantages

Very hard, heat resistant materials could be machined or welded easily

No physical or metallurgical damage results in the workpiece.
Close dimensional tolerance could be achieved since there is no cutting tool wear.
In electron beam welding there is virtually no contamination and close control of
penetration is possible.
Holes as small as 0.002 mm diameter could be drilled.

Disadvantages

The equipment costs high and operator of high skill is required for carrying out
operations.
The power consumption is exceedingly high
It is not very suitable for sinking deep holes, if the sides must be parallel. In other words,
it is not possible to have perfectly cylindrical deep holes by this method.
Unless special care is taken the bottom of a thorough hole would become cone-shaped.
It is most suitable for machining operation where much less material is to be removed.
The material removal rate being of the order of a fraction of a milligram per sec.
The electron beam operation can be carried out only in vacuum.

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Applications

It is used for drilling synthetic jewels in the watch industry.

Holes as small as 0.002 mm diameter can be produced in hard synthetic sapphires.
Electron beam can be suitably used for welding small pieces of highly reactive and
refractory metals.
For making fine gas orifices in space nuclear reactors and turbine blades for supersonic
aero engines, it is used
Wire drawing dies, flow orifices could be produced by this process.
Fine copper wire can be welded to in transistors.

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