Electrical Machines

Introduction
Dr. Tahir Izhar
Professor
Electrical Engineering, UET, Lahore

Introduction

Electric energy can be used to generate

light and heat.
Sometimes energy is required in
mechanical form such as fans and rolling
mills.
Electrical machines are energy converters.
These are used to continuously translate
electrical energy into mechanical energy or
vice versa.

Electromechanical Conversion
The process of energy conversion used in electric
machines is known as electromechanically energy
conversion

Electromechanical Conversion

In electrical system the primary

quantities involved are Voltage and
Current
In mechanical system, the analogous
quantities are Torque and Speed
Electric power is the product of
Voltage and Current-Watts
Mechanical power is the product of
Torque and Speed-HP
4

Electromechanical Conversion
The coupling medium between
electrical and mechanical systems is
the magnetic field.

Type of Electric Motors

Electric Motors

Alternating Current
(AC) Motors

Synchronous

Single-Phase

Induction

Separately
Excited

Three-Phase

Series

Direct Current (DC)

Motors

Compound

Self Excited

Shunt

Electric Motor Basic Principles

Interaction between magnetic field and
current carrying wire produces a force
Opposite of a generator

A Simple AC Generator

We noted earlier that Faradays law dictates

that if a coil of N turns experiences a change
in magnetic flux, then the induced voltage V is
d
given by
V N
dt

If a coil of area A rotates with respect to a field

B, and if at a particular time it is at an angle
to the field, then the flux linking the coil is
BAcos, and the rate of change of flux is given
by
d
d sin
d
dt

BA

dt

dt

cos cos

Thus for the arrangement shown

below
d
d sin
V N

dt

NBA

dt

NBA cos

Therefore this arrangement produces

a sinusoidal output as shown below

10

Wires connected to
the rotating coil
would get twisted
Therefore we use
circular slip rings
with sliding
contacts called
brushes
11

A Simple DC Generator

The alternating signal from the earlier AC

generator could be converted to DC using a
rectifier
A more efficient approach is to replace the two
slip rings with a single split slip ring called a
commutator
This is arranged so that connections to the coil are

reversed as the voltage from the coil changes

polarity.
Hence the voltage across the brushes is of a single
polarity.
Adding additional coils produces a more constant 12

Use of a commutator

13

A simple generator with two coils

14

Use of Iron Core

The ripple can be further reduced by the

use of a cylindrical iron core and by
shaping the pole pieces
This produces an

approximately
uniform field in the
narrow air gap
The arrangement
of coils and core
is known as the
armature
15

DC Motors Components
Field pole
North pole and south pole
Receive electricity to form
magnetic field

Armature
Cylinder between the poles
Electromagnet when current goes through
Linked to drive shaft to drive the load

Commutator
Overturns current direction in armature
16

Commutator of Actual Machine

Commutator Cross-Section

DC motor wiring topologies

18

DC motors
Separately excited DC motor: field current
supplied from a separate force

Self-excited DC motor: shunt motor

Speed constant
independent of load
up to certain torque
Field winding parallel
with armature winding
Current = field current
+ armature current

Speed control:
insert resistance
in armature or
field current
19

DC motors
Self-excited DC motor: series motor
Suited for high
starting torque:
cranes, hoists

Speed restricted to
5000 RPM
Avoid running with
no load: speed
uncontrolled

Field winding in series

with armature winding
Field current =
armature current

20

DC motors
DC compound motor
Suited for high
starting torque if high
% compounding:
cranes, hoists
Field winding in
series and
parallel with
armature winding

Good torque and

stable speed

Higher %
compound in
series = high
starting torque

21

AC Generators or
Alternators

Alternators do not require commutation

This allows a simpler construction.
The field coils are made to rotate while the armature

windings are stationary.

Note: the armature windings are those that produce the
output.

Thus the large heavy armature windings are in the

stator.
The lighter field coils are mounted on the rotor and
direct current is fed to these by a set of slip rings.

22

AC Generator

A four-pole alternator

23

Synchronous Machines

Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator

1. Most hydraulic turbines have to turn at low
speeds
(between 50 and 300
r/min)
d-axis
2. A large number of poles are required
on the
rotor
Nonuniform
air-gap

D 10 m
q-axis

Turbin
e

Hydro
(water)

Hydrogenerato
r

Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator

Stator

l e ro
o
p
t
n
Salie

tor

Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator

D 1
m

Turbin
e

L 10
m

Stea
m

Stator
winding

High speed

d-axis

3600 r/min -pole

1800 r/min -pole

Uniform airgap
Stat
or

q-axis

Rotor
winding
Roto
r

Direct-conductor cooling (using

hydrogen or water as coolant)
Rating up to 2000 MVA

Turbogenerator

Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator

Stator

Cylindrical rotor

Construction of synchronous
machines

Salient-pole rotor:
four and more poles.
Rotors are made laminated to reduce eddy current losses.

Construction of
synchronous machines
A synchronous rotor with 8 salient
poles

Salient pole with

field windings

Salient pole
without field
windings
observe
laminations

Construction of
synchronous machines

Construction of synchronous
machines

Slip
rings
Brush

Motors Operation

When current flows in a conductor it produces a

magnetic field about it - as shown in (a) below
When the current-carrying conductor is within an

externally generated magnetic field, the fields interact

and a force is exerted on the conductor - as in (b)

33

AC Motors

AC motors can be divided into two main

forms:
Synchronous motors
Asynchronous (Induction) motors

High-power versions of either type invariably

operate from a three-phase supply.
Single-phase versions of each are also
widely used particularly in a domestic
setup.
34

Synchronous motors

Just as a DC generator can be used as a DC motor,

so AC generators (or alternators) can be used as
synchronous AC motors.
Three phase motors use three sets of stator coils.
The rotating magnetic field drags the rotor around with it

Single phase motors require some starting

mechanism.
Torque is only produced when the rotor is in sync
with the rotating magnetic field.
Not self-starting may be configured as an induction motor

until its gets up to speed, then becomes a synchronous motor

35

Induction motors

These are perhaps the most important form of

AC motor.
Rather than use slip rings to pass current to
the field coils in the rotor, current is induced in
the rotor by transformer action.
The stator is similar to that in a synchronous
motor.
The rotor is simply a set of parallel conductors
shorted together at either end by two
conducting rings.
36

Induction motors

A squirrel-cage induction motor

37

Induction Motors

Poly-phase AC supply is used to create a rotating

magnetic field on the stator.
This induces a magnetic field on the rotor, which tries
to follow stator - slipping required to produce torque
Workhorses of the industry - high powered applications

38

Single Phase Induction motors

The single phase distributed winding of a

single phase induction motor does not
produce a rotating magnetic field, but a
pulsating field reaching maximum intensity
at 0o and 180o electrical.
The operation of the single phase induction
motor can be explained by the double
revolving field theory.
A pulsating field is equivalent to two
rotating fields of half the magnitudes but
rotating at the same synchronous speed in
opposite directions.
39

Double Revolving Field

Two counter rotating magnetic field can be

represented by phasors, coinciding twice
per revolution at 0o (Figure below-a) and
180o (figure e).
When the phasors rotate to 90o and -90o
they cancel in figure c.

Single phase stator produces a non-rotating, pulsating magnetic field

40

Double Revolving Field

At 45o and -45o (figure b) they are partially

additive along the +x axis and cancel along
the y axis.
An analogous situation exists in figure d.
The sum of these two phasors is a phasor
stationary in space, but alternating polarity
in time.
Thus, no starting torque is developed.

41

Torque production
Rotor at Standstill:
If the rotor is at standstill, the pulsating
stator flux will induced current in the rotor
circuit.
The rotor current will produce rotor
pulsating flux acting in the same axis.
The two fluxes tend to oppose each other
(Lenzs Law).
As the angle between these fluxes is zero
no starting torque is developed and the
rotor will remain at standstill.

42

Torque production
Rotor at Running:
If the rotor is running, the torque can be
developed.
This can be explain using double revolving field
theory.
Both rotating mmf s will produce component
torques in opposite directions.
At standstill, these component torques are equal
and opposite resulting zero starting torque.
At any other speed the two torques are unequal
and the resultant torque will keep the motor
rotating in the direction of rotation.
The torque-speed relation is shown in Figurebelow.
43

Torque-Speed Characteristics

Torque-Speed characteristics of a single phase induction

motor based on constant forward and backward flux
waves.

44

Single Phase Motors

Starting

Inherently, 1-phase motor can not start.

Some arrangement is required to produce
starting torque.
The simplest method is to provide an
auxiliary starting winding on the stator in
addition to main winding.
The two windings are displaced by 90o in
space.
The motor is started as two phase motor.
The two windings can be designed to make
the motor as a balanced two phase motor.
However, the windings must be energized
by two sources with phase 1/4/2013
displacement of

45

Capacitor Run Motor

A capacitor can be used to split the

single phase into two phases as
shown below.

46

Capacitor Run Motor

This motor configuration works well up to

1/4 horsepower (200watt), though,
usually applied to smaller motors.
The direction of the motor is easily
reversed by switching the capacitor in
series with the other winding.
This type of motor can be adapted for use
as a servo motor.
The capacitor value is of the order of 250uF.
The capacitor is a compromise between
the best starting and running values.
47

Torque-Speed
Capacitor run motor

Typical torque-speed characteristics of capacitor-run, split phase

motor.
48

Capacitor Start motor

A capacitor start motor is shown below.

The switch in on at standstill and turned
off after starting.

49

Capacitor Start motor

A larger capacitor may be used to start a

single phase induction motor via the
auxiliary winding.
It is switched out by a centrifugal switch
once the motor is up to speed.
Moreover, the auxiliary winding may be
many more turns of heavier wire than used
in a resistance split-phase motor to mitigate
excessive temperature rise.
The result is that more starting torque is
available for heavy loads like air
conditioning compressors.
1/4/2013so well that it
This motor configuration works
50

Torque-Speed
Capacitor Start motor

51

Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Motor

The circuit of this motor is shown

below.

1/4/2013

52

Capacitor-Start
Capacitor-Run Motor

A variation of the capacitor-start motor is to start

the motor with a relatively large capacitor for high
starting torque, but leave a smaller value
capacitor in place after starting to improve running
characteristics while not drawing excessive
current.
The additional complexity of the capacitor-run
motor is justified for larger size motors.
A motor starting capacitor may be a double-anode
non-polar electrolytic capacitor which could be two
+ to + (or - to -) series connected polarized
electrolytic capacitors.
Such AC rated electrolytic capacitors have such
high losses that they can only be used for
intermittent duty (1 second on, 60 seconds off) like
motor starting.
53
A capacitor for motor running must not be of

Torque-Speed
Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run

54

Resistance split-phase
motor

The circuit of this motor with phasor

is shown below

55

Resistance split-phase
motor

If an auxiliary winding of much fewer turns

of smaller wire is placed at 90o electrical to
the main winding, it can start a single
phase induction motor.
With lower inductance and higher
resistance, the current will experience less
phase shift than the main winding.
About 30o of phase difference may be
obtained.
This coil produces a moderate starting
torque, which is disconnected by a
centrifugal switch at 3/4 of synchronous
speed. This simple (no capacitor)
arrangement serves well for motors up to
1/3 horsepower (250 watts) driving easily

56

Shaded pole
induction motor

Shaded pole induction motor, (a) dual coil design, (b) smaller single
coil version.
57

Shaded pole
induction motor

An easy way to provide starting torque to a

single phase motor is to embed a shorted
turn in each pole at 30o to 60o to the main
winding.
Typically 1/3 of the pole is enclosed by a
bare copper strap.
These shading coils produce a time lagging
damped flux spaced 30o to 60o from the
main field.
This lagging flux with the undamped main
component, produces a rotating field with
a small torque to start the rotor.
58

Shaded pole
induction motor

Starting torque is so low that shaded pole motors

are only manufactured in smaller sizes, below 50
watts.
Low cost and simplicity suit this motor to small
fans, air circulators, and other low torque
applications.
Motor speed can be lowered by switching
reactance in series to limit current and torque, or
by switching motor coil taps as in Figure below.

59

Electronically Operated Motors

There is an emerging growth of Electronically Operated motors

in numerous applications.
This is due to the recent development in permanent magnet
materials, efficient high power semiconductor devices, and high
power single chip control devices.
These motors offer, long life, high reliability, lower cost, and
higher efficiency.
Elimination of brushes, commutator and slip rings makes the
design compact and robust.
Simple, light weight and lossless rotor construction lead to low
inertia, high efficiency and low cost.
This presentation will introduce permanent magnet Brushless,
and Switched Reluctance motors.
The operation and characteristics of these motors will be
introduced.
60

Brushless DC Motors

61

Brushless DC Motors (BLDCM)

Essential difference - commutation is

performed electronically with controller
rather than mechanically with brushes

62

BLDCM Commutation

Commutation is performed
electronically using a controller.

Needs rotor positional closed loop

feedback: hall effect sensors, back EMF,
photo transistors
63

Applications, Pros and

Cons

Applications
CPU cooling fans
CD/DVD Players
Electric automobiles
Pros (compared to brushed DC)
Higher efficiency
Longer lifespan, low maintenance
Clean, fast, no sparking/issues with brushed contacts
Cons
Higher cost
More complex circuitry and requires a controller,
64

Definition of BLDC

A synchronous motor with permanent

magnets in the rotor and operated in self
controlled mode using rotor position sensors
and solid state electronic commutator-is
generally known as a brushless DC motor.
Due to the recent development in
permanent magnet materials and power
electronic devices, there has been an
emerging growth of permanent magnet
brushless motors in numerous applications.
65

Brushless DC Motors:
Characteristics

These machines are highly suitable

for servodrive applications due to
following characteristics:
Elimination of brushes, commutator and slip

rings makes the design compact and robust.

Simple, light weight and lossless rotor
construction lead to low inertia and high
efficiency.
Low rotor inertia leads to quick dynamic
response.
High efficiency allows a reduction in frame size
of the machine.

66

Brushless Motors:
major classes

There are two major classes of permanent

magnet brushless motors drives.
These are characterised by the shapes of
their respective back EMF waveformssinusoidal and trapezoidal .
The sinusoidal back EMF motor is usually
excited with perfectly sinusoidal current
The trapezoidal back EMF motor is fed
with quasi-square current waveform with
two intervals of zero-current excitation per
cycle.
67

Brushless Motors:
Major Classes

The trapezoidal back EMF motor, driven with DC

current which switches polarity in synchronism
with the passage of alternate magnet poles, is
known as brushless DC motor.
The nature of the rectangular current with only six
commutation instants of a three phase brushless
DC motor, requires very simple position sensing
system as compared to sinusoidal back EMF
motor.
The characteristics of brushless DC machines, in
its ideal form, are exactly the same as the DC
machine
68

axial-field and radial-field machines

Permanent magnet brushless DC motors can be

constructed with disc type rotors or cylindrical
rotors. The former type are referred to as axialfield machines and the later as radial-field
machines. Each type has its own advantages and
drawbacks. The axial-field machine can yield high
dynamic performance as compared to radial-field
machine. However, its efficiency and maximum
torque can be lower. Moreover, the manufacturing
cost of axial-field machine is higher than that for
radial-field machine.

69

Magnet Mounting:
Surface

Permanent magnets can

be mounted with a
variety of ways.
The magnets can be
mounted on the surface
of the steel rotor using
high-strength adhesive
material.
In surface mount magnet
machines, the effective
airgap is large because
the recoil permeability of
the magnet material at
1.02 to 1.06 is close to
that of air.

70

Magnet Mounting:
Surface

Large airgap yields negligible

armature reaction and small
magnetising inductance.
The structure is magnetically
non-salient.
Ld =Lq
Due to a large airgap, the
electrical time constant of
the stator winding is small
which is important as far as
the dynamic response of the
machine is concerned.

71

Magnet Mounting: Inset

The arrangement
shown in the figure is
known as inset
magnets.
The permanent
magnets are inserted
in the steel structure.
This construction is
more secure compared
to surface magnets.
The structure is salient.
72

Magnet Mounting: Inset

The reluctance along

q-axis and d-axis are
different.
Ld < Lq
Same magnet size, the
peak torque is large,
due to additional
reluctance torque.
The electrical time
constant of the stator
winding is large.
73

Magnet Mounting:
Interior

Larger air-gap flux due to

flux-focusing effect.
Ld > Lq
The structure is
magnetically salient.
Ferrite magnets can be
employed and large airgap flux can be achieved.
This type is used for
motors with sinusoidal
back emf designs.

74

Brushless DC motor:
construction

A brushless DC motor, is a motor without brushes, slip-rings

or mechanical commutator
The airgap flux is produced by the permanent magnets.
The characteristics of the brushless DC motor are identical
to the conventional DC motor as seen from the DC supply.
The brushless DC motor is constructed with permanent
magnets on the rotor and current carrying conductors are
placed in the stator.
The function of the commutator and brushes is
implemented by maintenance-free solid-state switches.
Therefore, in this respect the brushless DC motor is
equivalent to an inverted DC commutator motor.

75

Brushless DC motor:
Construction
3-PHASE INVERTER

BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

ROTOR POSITION SENSOR

-R
1

SHUTTER

5
B

Y
S

V
-

N
-Y

-B

R
OPTICAL

SENSOR

ROTOR POSITION FEEDBACK

The basic components of a typical brushless DC

motor.
76

Brushless DC motor:
Construction

The permanent magnet brushless DC motor,

essentially requires a rotor position sensor to
detect the pole position in order to switch the
current in the stationary winding so that the
current pattern in the stationary winding rotates
in self-synchronism with the rotating field, thus
producing continuous torque.
An inverter is needed to switch the currents into
the windings.
Note that the inverter takes the place of the
commutator and a three phase inverter is
equivalent to a three segment commutator of a
conventional DC motor.
77

Brushless DC motor:
Construction

The motor uses a simple optical position sensor. It

comprises of a shutter disc and three slottedoptical sensors.
The shutter disc has one tooth and one slot
because this motor has two permanent magnet
poles.
The slotted sensor has an integrated light source,
photo transistor and necessary circuit to generate
standard logic signals.
When the shutter tooth covers the sensor slot, the
sensor generates logic '0' and when uncovered, it
generates a logic '1' signal.
78

Brushless DC motor:
Construction

The shutter disc is mounted on the rotor shaft and

aligned with the poles.
The three sensors are mounted on a stationary
frame and aligned with their respective phases.
This typical brushless DC motor uses two-phase
feeding scheme with magnet arc of 180o.
A conventional 3-phase inverter is used to
energised the motor winding. A DC voltage source
is connected across the top and bottom power rail
while three motor terminals are connected to the
middle points of each leg of the inverter.

79

Brushless DC motor:
Construction

Clamping diodes are connected across each

power transistor to free-wheel the current through
the inductive winding which is turned off.
Rotor position feedback signals are required to
turn 'on' and turn 'off' the respective power
transistors of the inverter.
The three position sensors generate the
commutation logic signals. However, these logic
signals must be encoded using combinational
logic circuit to switch the six inverter transistors.
The three phase winding of the motor can either
be connected in star configuration or in delta
configuration.

80

Star Configuration
3-PHASE INVERTER
1

MOTOR

iY

POSITION
iB

+
V
-

SENSOR

eY
eB

6
B

eR

iR

LOGIC DECODER

81

Star Configuration

Figure shows the drive circuit of a 3phase, star-connected brushless DC

motor.
The motor windings are represented with
its equivalent circuit of induced voltage
source in series with winding inductance
and its copper resistance.
The switching sequence of the inverter
transistors with respect to the rotor
position is shown in the following Table.
82

Star Configuration:
Switching Sequence

Position

D irection

Sensorsoutput

InverterTransistors

060

CCW

60120

CCW

120180

CCW

180240

CCW

240300

CCW

300360

CCW

060

CW

60120

CW

120180

CW

180240

CW

240300

CW

300360

CW

1 0
83

Induced Voltage

If the permanent magnet rotor of the brushless

DC motor, shown, is rotated at a constant speed,
with the stator windings open circuited then the
induced EMFs observed are shown in Figure below.
For a 60o distributed, full-pitch winding with ideal
rectangular airgap flux, the ideal induced EMF in
each phase is trapezoidal in shape.
The important feature of the waveform is
constant amplitude for 120o during the positive
and negative half cycles.

84

Induced Voltage

ER
R

i R

iY
Y
Y

eB

EB
B

iB

Converted Power

2EI

B B

Y Y

EI

R R

ER R

EY Y

EB B

Conducting Devices

85

Delta Configuration

It is also possible to connect the

windings in delta configuration.
However, the switching pattern of
the inverter devices must be
modified.
The operation of a delta connected
motor can be understood from the
circuit diagrams of Figure below.
86

Delta Configuration
I

I/2

+
V
-

I/2
B

Y
87

Delta Configuration:
Switching Sequence
Position

D irection

Sensorsoutput

InverterTransistors

060

C CW

60120

C CW

120180

C CW

180240

C CW

240300

C CW

300360

C CW

060

CW

60120

CW

120180

CW

180240

CW

240300

CW

300360

CW

88

Delta Configuration

It can be seen that at any instant in

time, three inverter transistors are
'on' to energise two motor phases
while the third remains idle.
Each phase conducts for 120o
rotation.
Therefore, the ideal phase induced
EMF and feed current waveforms
shown above, also apply to delta
configuration.

89

Rotor Position Sensors

In permanent magnet brushless motors,

some means must be incorporated for the
detection of rotor position to run the motor
in self synchronism.
A very simple low bandwidth position sensor
is required for brushless DC motor to
produce only six commutation pulses per
cycle.
However, high resolution position decoder
is required for permanent magnet brushless
AC motor to feed sinusoidal current.
90

Hall-Effect Sensors

The most commonly used position sensor in

brushless DC motors is the Hall-effect element.
The Hall-effect element is a DC-coupled device
which detects the magnetic field.
It is constructed using a semiconductor pellet with
four terminals attached to each side of the pellet.
A DC bias is applied across two terminals of the
element while an EMF (HALL-voltage) is produced
across the other two terminals if it is placed in a
magnetic field due to Hall effect.

91

Hall-Effect Sensors

Hall IC chips are also available which have Hall

element, amplifier and logic converter circuit in a
single package.
The output of the Hall IC can be used directly to
drive the power transistors.
The Hall elements or ICs can be easily mounted
inside the stator of the motor to detect the
polarity of the rotor magnets.
Therefore, the cost of the motor can be reduce
considerably by using build-in Hall-effect sensors.

92

Sensorless Operation

The sensorless operation of brushless DC motor

has been investigated by many researchers.
In all the cases the rotor position is estimated
through indirect means such as induced EMF.
Since the rotor has permanent magnets, the
induced EMF generated in the phase windings or
in separate search coils can be used to detect the
rotor position.
However, the induced EMF is zero when the motor
is not moving. Therefore, some sort of star-up
mechanism is required before using the induced
EMF signals to lock the machine in self
synchronism.
93

Control of Brushless DC Drive

From the control point of view the

brushless DC motor is similar to the DC
commutator motor.
To control the DC motor drive, a separate
chopper circuit is required if the motor is
to be driven from a DC voltage source.
However, in a brushless DC drive, the
inverter is an integral part of the motor
which can be used to implement the
speed and current controls.
94

Control of Brushless DC Drive

Commutation
ref

logic

i ref

PWM

Generator

Commutation

logic
Current (torque) feedback
Current
sensing
resistor
Y

Motor

Shaft
position
sensor
Speed feedback

TG

95

Equivalent Circuit
+

R ph

eph

+
V'

V'

R ph

R'

E'

eph

96

Switched Reluctance
Motors
(SRM)

97

Variable Reluctance Motor

The variable reluctance motor is based on

the principle that an unrestrained piece of
iron will move to complete a magnetic
flux path with minimum reluctance, the
magnetic analog of electrical resistance.

2/4/2013

98

Variable Reluctance Motor

This type of motor consists of a soft iron

multi-toothed rotor and a wound stator.
When the stator windings are energized
with DC Current, the poles become
magnetized.
Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth are
attracted to the energized stator poles.

99

Synchronous Reluctance Motor

If the rotating field of a large synchronous

motor with salient poles is de-energized, it
will still develop 10 or 15% of synchronous
torque. This is due to variable reluctance
throughout a rotor revolution.
There is no practical application for a large
synchronous reluctance motor. However, it
is practical in small sizes.
If slots are cut into the conductor-less rotor
of an induction motor, corresponding to
the stator slots, a synchronous reluctance
motor results.
10

Synchronous Reluctance Motor

It starts like an induction motor but runs with a

small amount of synchronous torque. The
synchronous torque is due to changes in
reluctance of the magnetic path from the stator
through the rotor as the slots align.
This motor is an inexpensive means of developing
a moderate synchronous torque. Low power
factor, low pull-out torque, and low efficiency are
characteristics of the direct power line driven
variable reluctance motor.
Such was the status of the variable reluctance
motor for a century before the development of
semiconductor power control.
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Switched reluctance Motor

Sequential switching of the stator phases

moves the rotor from one position to the
next. The magnetic flux seeks the path of
least reluctance. This is an over simplified
rotor and waveforms to illustrate
operation.

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Four Rotor Poles

Doubling the number of stator poles decreases

the rotating speed and increases torque.
This might eliminate a gear reduction drive. If
smooth rotation is the goal, there is an electronic
driven version of the switched reluctance motor.

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6-Rotor and 8-Stator

Poles

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Electronic drive for SRM

While the variable reluctance motor is simple, even

more so than an induction motor, it is difficult to
control.
Electronic control solves this problem and makes it
practical to drive the motor well above and below the
power line frequency.
A variable reluctance motor driven by a servo, an
electronic feedback system, controls torque and
speed, minimizing ripple torque.

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Operation

A variable reluctance motor is optimized for

continuous high speed rotation with minimum
ripple torque. It is necessary to measure the rotor
position with a rotary position sensor like an
optical or magnetic encoder, or derive this from
monitoring the stator back EMF.
A microprocessor performs complex calculations
for switching the windings at the proper time with
solid state devices.
This must be done precisely to minimize audible
noise and ripple torque. For lowest ripple torque,
winding current must be monitored and
controlled.

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Operation

The strict drive requirements make this motor

only practical for high volume applications like
energy efficient vacuum cleaner motors, fan
motors, or pump motors.
One such vacuum cleaner uses a compact high
efficiency electronic driven 100,000 rpm fan
motor.
The simplicity of the motor compensates for the
drive electronics cost. No brushes, no
commutator, no rotor windings, no permanent
magnets, simplifies motor manufacture.
The efficiency of this electronic driven motor can
be high. But, it requires considerable
optimization, using specialized design
techniques, which is only justified for large
manufacturing volumes.
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Advantages

Simple construction- no brushes, commutator, or

permanent magnets, no Cu or Al in the rotor.
High efficiency and reliability compared to
conventional AC or DC motors.
High starting torque.
Cost effective compared to bushless DC motor in
high volumes.
Adaptable to very high ambient temperature.
Low cost accurate speed control possible if
volume is high enough.

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Disadvantages

Current versus torque is highly nonlinear

Phase switching must be precise to
minimize ripple torque
Phase current must be controlled to
minimize ripple torque
Acoustic and electrical noise
Not applicable to low volumes due to
complex control issues

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Linear Motor

At present Linear Motors are not widely used.

However Linear Motors has great potential in the
field of high speed transportation.

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International Standards

11

IEC Standards
The International Electrotechnical
Commission, in French is a
non-profit, non-governmental
international standards organization
that prepares and publishes
International Standards for all
electrical, electronic and related
technologies collectively known as
"electrotechnology".
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IEC Standards

IEC standards cover a vast range of

technologies from power generation,
transmission and distribution to home
appliances and office equipment,
semiconductors, fibre optics, batteries, solar
energy, nanotechnology and marine energy as
well as many others.
The IEC also manages three global conformity
assessment systems that certify whether
equipment, system or components conform to
its International Standards.
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IEC Standards
The IEC charter includes:

Energy production and distribution.

Electronics.
Magnetics and Electro-magnetics.
Electro-acoustics.
Multimedia and Telecommunication.
Terminology and Symbols.
Electromagnetic compatibility.
Measurement and Performance.
Dependability.
Design and Development.
Safety and Environment.
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Membership and participation

The IEC is made up of members, called national

committees, and each NC represents its nation's
electrotechnical interests in the IEC.
This includes manufacturers, providers, distributors
and vendors, consumers and users, all levels of
governmental agencies, professional societies and
trade associations as well as standards developers
from national standards bodies.
National committees are constituted in different ways.
Some NCs are public sector only, some are a
combination of public and private sector, and some are
private sector only.
About 90% of those who prepare IEC standards work in
industry.
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IEC Full Members

Full Members

Associate Members

Affiliates
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Standard Supply Voltages

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Standard Supply Voltage

in Pakistan

Official standard is 230 V / 50Hz.

Voltage tolerance is 230 V 5% (218
V to 242 V).
Frequency tolerance 50Hz 2%
(49Hz to 51Hz)
But Karachi Electric Supply
Corporation (KESC) is 240 V / 50Hz.

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Power and Energy

Horsepower:

In 1700s, Scottish inventor

James Watt need to explain
why his steam engines were
better than the horses
He calculated the amount of
work one horse could do in a
minute.
Thus the term horsepower
was coined.
Not only did Mr. Watt sell his
steam engines, he introduced a
system of measurement that is
still in use today.

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Power and Energy

Horse-power:

Mr. Watt wanted to tell how powerful his engines

were.
After some tests (not with engines but with
horses) he established that on the average, a
horse could haul coal at the rate of 22,000 lb-ft
per min.
For some reason, he decided the raise this
number by 50% to arrive at 33,000 lb-ft per
minutes.
So, if an engine can push 33,000 Lb of something
one foot in one minute, we say that is a onehorsepower engine.
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Electrical Machines
Introduction

THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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