FLUID DYNAMICS

PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID DYNAMICS

1.Basic Equations of Fluid Dynamics
(a) CONTINUITY EQUATION : The principle of conservation of mass
may be stated as follows: the mass of fluid passing any section per unit time is
constant. The equation which results from this application is known as the
equation of continuity or continuity equation.
V
2

A2
V1
A1

a.1 For compressible fluid (gas), equation of continuity is,

1A1V1 = 2A2V2 ( kg/s)

or

1A1V1 = 2A2V2 (N/s)

where: density of fluid

(kg/m3)
specific weight of fluid (N/m3)
A area of the section (m2)

Where:

pg

RT

and

RT

a.2 For Incompressible fluid (liquid), equation of

continuity is
reduced to,
A1V1 = A2V2 (m3/s)
since and may be assumed constants.
For A
any
V section:
Q cons tan t
Q is discharge or flow rate
Note: Under a.1 and a.2, for circular pipes,

2
2
D1 V1 D2 V2
4
4
2

or

D2
V2
V1
D1

(b) ENERGY EQUATION: The energy of the flowing stream of

fluid per unit
time passing any upstream section is the same as the
energy per unit time
passing any downstream section plus the loss of energy
between the
two
2
2
V1
p1
V2
p
Z1
2 Z 2 H L ,1 2
sections.
2g
2g
b.1 For incompressible fluid (liquid), the equation is,
V2
- Velocity head ( m or N-m/N)
Where:
2g

- Pressure head (m or N-m/N)

- Elevation head (m or N-m/N)

V2
- The kinetic energy per unit weight
2g
p
and Z - Constitute the potential energy per unit weight

HL

- The head loss between sections 1 and 2

b.2 For compressible fluid (gas) under isothermal conditions, the equation is,
2

V1
p1
V2
p1
ln p1 Z1
ln p2 Z 2 H L ,1 2
2g 1
2g 1
Where: p absolute pressure ( N/m2 )

NOTE: The Concept of Energy Equation was originally formulated by

Daniel Bernoulli in 1738: The Bernoullis Principle state that as the
speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within
that fluid decreases. Basically, the concept states that the total
energy in a steadily flowing fluid system is a constant along the flow
path. An increase in the fluids speed must therefore be matched by
a decrease in its pressure.
In mathematical equation
Dividing by constant Volume, V

P.E. K .E. constant

1
mgh mV 2 k1
2

1 2
mv
mgh 2
k1

V
V
V

1 2
mv
mgh 2
k1

V
V
V
1 2
gh v k
2
1 2
h v k
2
1 2
p v k
2
We can write,

1 2
1 2
1
2
p v p1 v1 p2 v2 k
2
2
2
Where: p = pressure
v = velocity
= density

Note: In the Bernoullis concept, it is clear that if

velocity increases at one end, it must be
matched by a decrease in pressure.

(c) If external energy is added to the stream between points 1

and 2 as for
instance by a pump, the complete energy
equation becomes:
2
2
V1
p1
V2
p
Z1 E p
2 Z 2 H L ,1 2
2g
2g
where: Ep = external energy head added
(d)

If energy is given up by the system to a turbine between

points 1 and 2,
the right side of the energy equation
must include a term ET to represent
the
head given
2
2 up.
V1
p
V
p
1 Z1 2 2 Z 2 ET H L ,1 2
2g
2g
where: ET = energy given up

( e ) IMPULSE-MOMENTUM EQUATION : The impulse of a force is

equal to the change in the momentum of the mass.

Ft M V f Vo M V

Where: Ft impulse
MVf final momentum
MVo initial momentum

2. Important Definitions in Fluid Flow

(a) Path line is a line made by a single particle as it moves
during a period of time
(a) Streamline: an imaginary line within the flow for which the
tangent at any point gives the direction of flow at that point.
V1

P1

P2

V2
P3

V3

P4

V4

P5

V5

P6

V6

Path Line and Streamline

(b) Stream tube: an element of fluid bounded by streamlines
which enclose or confine the flow.
(c) Steady Flow: when the velocity, pressure, discharge or
flow rate at a given point in flowing stream of the fluid
remains constant with time or dQ/dt = 0.

(d) Uniform Flow: if, at a given instant, the velocity remains constant
with respect to a stretch or distance in the flowing stream of
fluid or dV/ds = 0.
(e) Discharge or Flow Rate, Q: the volume of fluid passing a section
of the stream per unit time or
Q = AV
Unit: m3/s;
(f)

ft3/s;

gal/min

Head Loss: the energy per unit weight lost due to friction (major
loss) or total disturbances (minor loss).

(g) Power is obtained by multiplying the total energy head

(K.E. + P.E.), which may be in N-m/N by Q to obtain N-m/s.
Dividing by 746 gives the horsepower, or

H .P

Q E
746

Example 1. A fluid in a pipe 200 mm in diameter with a mean velocity of

3.05 m/s. The pressure at the center of the pipe is 35 kPa, and the
elevation of the pipe above a reference datum is 4.60 m. Compute
the total head in meters if the liquid is (a) water, (b) molasses (s =1.50),
( c) gas (=6.54 N/m3).
Solution:
200 mm

p= 35 kPa

V = 3.05 m/s

V2 p
Z
(a) E
2g

3.05m / s 2

35 x103 N / m 2
E

4.60m
2
3
2 9.81m / s
9810 N / m

4.60 m

E 8.642m (water)
Datum

( b)

V2 p
E
Z
2g

3.05m / s 2

35 x103 N / m 2
E

4.60m
2
3
2 9.81m / s
1.5 x9810 N / m

E 7.453m (molasses)

3.05m / s 2

35 x103 N / m 2

4.60m
(c ) E
2
3
2 9.81m / s
6.54 N / m

E 5,356.76m (gas)

Example 2. A liquid ( s=2.00) is flowing in a 50 mm diameter pipe. The total

energy at a given point is 7.47 N-m/N. The elevation of the pipe
above the datum is 3.0 m and the pressure in the pipe is 65.5 kPa.
Compute the velocity of flow and the H.P. of the stream at that
point.
p = 65.5 kPa

Solution:

50 mm

(a)
3.0 m

V2 p
E
Z
2g

V2
65.5 x103 N / m 2
7.47 m

3.0m
2
3
2 9.81m / s 2(9810 N / m )
Datum

V 4.712m / s

(b)

Q AV

2
Q 0.050m 4.712m / s
4
Q 9.252 x10 3 m 3 / s
( c) H .P

Q E
746watts / HP

9.252 x10
H .P

m 3 / s 2 x9810 N / m 3 7.47 m
746 watts / HP

H .P 1.82horsepower

Example 3. At a point A where the suction pipe leading to a pump is

1.20 m below the pump an open manometer indicates a vacuum of
180 mm of mercury. The pipe is
100 mm in diameter, and the discharge is 0.030 m 3/s of oil (s =
0.85). Compute the
total head at point A with respect to a datum at the pump.
Solution:

Datum
1.20 m

A
p = mhm = - (13.6 x 9810 N/m3)(0.18 m) = - 24.015 kPa

0.030m 3 / s
Q

(a) V

A
2
4

0.10m

3.82m / s

2
3.82m / s 24.015 x10 N / m 1.20m
V
p
(b) E
Z
2g
2 x9.81m / s 2
0.85 x9810 N / m 3

3.33 N m / N

Example 4. A vertical circular stack 30 m high converges uniformly

from a diameter
of 6 m at the bottom to 5.0 m at the top. Coal gas with a unit
weight of 4.71
N/m3 enters at the bottom of the stack with a velocity of 3.05 m/s.
The unit
0.25top.
m / 7.5m
6 3 5atthe
(a) Changes
in the to
diameter
weight of the gas increases
uniformly
6.59 =N/m
5.0the
m
Compute
30
5
Therefore for every 7.5 m height, the change
mean velocity every 7.5 m up the stack.
7.5 m

In diameter is 0.25 m. Starting from the bottom

The diameters changes as follows:

Solution:

7.5 m
3

7.5 m
2

coal gas
6m

7.5 m
1

D1 = 6.00 m
D2 = 5.75 m
D3 = 5.50 m
D4 = 5.25 m
D5 = 5.00 m


6.59 4.71 N / m 3

(b) The Change in specific weight

30m

1.88 N / m 3

30m

0.47 N / m 3

7.5m
Therefore for every 7.5 m height, the specific weight changes by 0.47 N/m3
1 = 4.71 N/m3
2 = 5.18 N/m3
3 = 5.65 N/m3
4 = 6.12 N/m3

( c)

5 = 6.59 N/m3

Using the CONTINUITY EQ.

1 A1V1 2 A2V2 3 A3V3 4 A4V4 5 A5V5

4.71 x6 2 3.05 5.18 x5.752 V2 5.65 x5.50 2 V3 6.12 x5.252 V4 6.59 x52 V5
4

4.71 x6 2 3.05 5.18 x5.752 V2 5.65 x5.50 2 V3 6.12 x5.252 V4 6.59 x52 V5
4

V2 3.02m / s
V3 3.026m / s
V4 3.066m / s
V5 3.139m / s

Example 5. A 300 mm pipe is connected by a reducer to a 100 mm pipe.

Points 1 and 2 are at the same elevation. The pressure at 1 is 207
kPa. The flow is 0.028 m3/s and the energy lost between 1 and 2 is
equivalent to 20.68 kPa. Compute the pressure at 2 if the liquid is
oil (s = 0.80).
Solution:
300 mm dia.
V1

100 mm dia.
2

Q 0.028m 3 / s

(a) V1
0.396m / s
A1 0.30m 2
4

Q
0.028m 3 / s

V2
3.565m / s

2
A2
0.10m
4

Datum
V2

(b) H L ,12

H L ,1 2

20.68 x103 N / m 2

0.80 x9810 N / m 3

2.635m

( c) The energy equation (1 2)

2

V1
p
V
p
1 Z1 2 2 Z 2 H L ,1 2
2g
2g

0.396 2 207 x103

3.5652
p2

Z1

Z 2 2.635
2 x9.81 0.8 x9810
2 x9.81 0.8 x9810
N
kN
or
p2 181,299.56 2
p2 181.299 2 orkPa
m
m

Example 6. Compute the velocity head of the jet, as shown, if D1

= 75 mm,
D2 = 25 mm, the pressure head at 1 is 30 m of the liquid
flowing, and the head lost between 1 and 2 is 5% of the
velocity head at 2.
p1
30m

jet

Solution

75 mm dia.

25 mm dia.

(a) Using the continuity equation:

A1V1 A2V2

0.075 2V1 0.025 2V2

4
4
2
0.025
V1
V2
0.075

1
V1 V2
9

Datum

(b) The energy equation (1 2)

2

0 (atm.)

V1
p
V
p
1 Z1 2 2 Z 2 H L ,1 2
2g
2g

1
V2
9
2g

2
2

V2
V2
30
0.05
2g
2g
2

1 V2
V

1.5 2 30
81 2 g
2g
2

V2
1.0376
30
2g
2
V2
28.913m
2g

Example 7. In the figure, a 50 mm pipe line leads downhill from a reservoir

and discharges into air. If the loss of head between A and B is 44 m,
compute the discharge.
W.S

Elev. 46 m

50 mm dia.

Solution:
B

Energy equation (A B)
2

jet

VA
p
V
p
A Z A B B Z B H L , A B
2g
2g
negl. 0 (atm.)

Elev. 0 (Datum)

0 (atm.)

VB
2m
2g

VB
46m
44m
2g

VB 6.264

m
s

Q ABVB

Then,

m
2
Q 0.050m 6.264
4
s

m3
Q 0.012
s
2

Note: V A is negligible since the water surface in the large reservoir

2 g will drop down very slowly.
W.S

Elev. 46 m

50 mm dia.
B
Elev. 0 (Datum)
jet

Example 8. A pump draws water from a 200 mm suction pipe and

discharging through a 150 mm pipe in which the velocity is
3.658 m/s. The pressure is -34.47 kPa at A. The 150 mm pipe
discharges into the air at C. To what height h above B can the water
be raised, If B is 1.80 m above A and 20 HP is delivered to the
pump? Assume that the pump operates at 70% efficiency and the
frictional loss between A and C is 3.0 m.

Solution

(a) Using Continuity Eq.

200 mm
W.S.

AAVA ABVB

150 mm

Datum

1.80 m

0.20 2VA 0.15 2 3.658

4
4
2
0.15
VA
3.658
0.20
m
VA 2.058
s

Q AAVA ABVB

x0.20 2 2.058
4

m3
0.065
s

200 mm

(b) Using the energy equation (A C)

2

150 mm

Datum

0 (atm.)

VA
pA
VC
pC

Z A Ep

Z C H L , AC
2g
2g

2.058 2 34.47 x103 0 E

2 x9.81

9810

h 8.78 E p

3.658

0 1.80 h 3.0

2 x9.81

1.80 m

Where:

% eff. (HP of pump)

0.70 20

Q Ep
746

0.065 9810 E p
746

E p 16.38m ( Energy added by the pump

to the system)

therefore

h 8.78 16.38
h 7.60m

Example 9. The 610 mm pipe conducts water from reservoir A to a pressure

turbine, which discharges through another 610 mm pipe into tailrace
B. The head losses are:
From A 1 : 5V2/2g
From 2 B : 0.2V2/2g
If the discharge is 0.708 m3/s, what HP is being given up by the
water turbine.
W.S

Elev. 46 m

610 mm dia.
610 mm dia.

W.S

Elev. 0 (Datum)

W.S

Elev. 60 m

610 mm dia.
610 mm dia.

(a) Using Energy Equation (A B)

W.S

Elev. 0 (Datum)

VA
pA
VB
pB

Z A ET

Z B H L , A B
2g
2g
Q
0.708
m
Where:
negl.
0
V
2.423
negl.
0

2
A
s
2
2

0
.
610
V
V
4

60 ET 0 5
0.2
Then,
2g
2g
2

2
.
423
2
58.444m
ET 60 5.2
V

ET 60 5.2
2 x9.81
2g

Therefore

Q E
746

HP

m3
N
0.708 9810 3 58.444m
s
m

HP
N m
746 s
hp
HP 544.131hp

N m J
Watts
Note :
s
s

Example 10. In a test to determine the discharge coefficient of a 50 mm by

12 mm Venturi Meter the total weight of water passing through the
meter in 5 minutes was 3100 N. A mercury-water differential gage
connected to inlet and throat showed an average mercury difference
of 360 mm. Determine the meter coefficient.
Solution:
50 mm dia.

H2O

12 mm

Hg

(a) Meter coefficient, C

(b) Actual Discharge, Qact .

360 mm

Qact .
Qth.
Volume

time

Qact .
Qact .
Qact .

3100 N
3
9810
N
/
m

5 min x60s / min

3
m
1.053 x10 3
s

50 mm dia.
12 mm

H2O

Hg

360 mm

(c ) Energy equation (1 2), HL neglected (theoretical values)

2

V1
p1
V2
p2
Z1

Z 2 H L ,1 2
2g
2g
0

V2 V1
p1 p2

2g 2g

where :

A1V1 A2V2

0.050 2V1 0.012 2V2

4
4
2
0.012
V1
V2
0.015
V1 0.0576V2

and

p1
0.3601.0 0.360 13.6

p1
0.3601.0 0.360 13.6

p1 p2

4.536m

So,

Therefore,
2

p2

p2

V2 V1

4.536m
2g 2g

V2 0.0576V2

4.536m
2g
2g
2

V2
0.997
4.536m
2g
m
V2 9.45
s

Qth A2V2

2
Qth 0.012 9.45
4
3
m
Qth 1.069 x10 3
s

Finally,

1.053 x10 3
C
1.069 x10 3
C 0.985

Example 11. A pitot tube in a pipe in which air (a = 12 N/m3) is flowing is

connected to a manometer containing water as in the figure shown.
If the difference in water levels in the manometer is 90 mm, what is the
velocity of flow in the pipe, assuming a tube coef. Cp = 0.99?

90 mm
H2O

air

Solution:
(a) Energy equation (1 2), HL = 0 ( for theoretical values)
2

V1
p1
V2
p2
Z1

Z 2 H L ,1 2
2g
2g
0

90 mm
H2O

air

V1
p1
V2
p2
Z1

Z 2 H L ,1 2
2g a
2g a
0

V1
p2 p1

2g a a
Considering the manometer reading starting from point 2 proceeding to point 3

p1
p2
0.090 w
p3

0
0
a
a
a a

90 mm
2

H2O

air

0.090 w
p
p2
p
0
0 3 1
a
a
a a
p2 p1 0.090 w

a a
a
Assuming the specific weight of air, a = 12 N/m3

p2 p1 0.090 9810

73.575m
a a
12

then,

V1
p2 p1

2g a a
2

V1
73.575
2g
m
V1 37.994
s

Finally,

Vact C p xV1
Vact 0.99 x37.994
Vact 37.614

m
s

m
s

EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1.A Fluid flowing in a pipe 30 cm in diameter has a uniform velocity of
4 m/s. The pressure at the center of the pipe is 40 kPa, and the elevation
of the pipes center line above an assumed datum is 4.5 m. Compute the
total energy per unit weight of the flowing fluid if it is (a) oil (s = 080)
(b) gas ( = 8.50 N/m3).
2.A liquid of specific gravity 1.75 flows in a 75 mm pipe. The total energy
at a point in the flowing liquid is 100 J/N. The elevation of the pipe above
a fixed datum is 3.0 m and the pressure in the pipe is 90 kPa. Determine
the velocity of flow and the power available at that point.
3.Point A in the suction pipe is 1 m below the pump. It is mounted with an
open manometer which reads a vacuum of 20 cm of mercury. The pipe is
10 cm in diameter and the flow is 35 liters/s of water. Compute the total
energy at point A with respect to a datum through the pump.

4.

A city requires a flow of 1.5 m3/s for its water supply. Determine the
diameter of the pipe if the velocity of flow is to be 1.80 m/s.

5.

A pipe line consists of three successive lengths of 500 mm, 400 mm,
and 300 mm pipes. With continuous discharge of 300 liters/s of oil
(0.75) compute the mean velocity in each pipe.

6.

A 300 mm pipe is connected by a reducer to a 100 mm pipe. Points 1 and

2 are along the same elevation. The pressure at point 1 is 200 kPa. The
flow is 30 liters/s and the energy lost between 1 and 2 is equivalent to
20 kPa. Compute the pressure at point 2 if the liquid flowing is water.

7.Compute the velocity of the jet if the larger diameter is 100 mm and the
smaller diameter is 30 mm. The pressure head at point 1 is 30 m of the
flowing water and the head lost between points 1 and 2 is 5 % of the
velocity head of the jet.
100 mm

V1

30 mm

V2

8. In figure, 40 liters/s of sea water (s=1.03) is flowing from 1

to 2, and the pressure at 1 is 95 kPa while at 2 the pressure
is 20 kPa. Point 2 is 6 m higher than 1. Compute the
energy lost in kPa between 1 and 2 if D1 = 300 mm and
D2 = 100 mm.
V2
2

D2

6m
V1

D1