CHAPTER 4

INDIVIDUALS IN SCHOOLS:
MOTIVATION

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INDIVIDUALS ARE MOTIVATED BY THEIR:

Needs
Beliefs
Goals

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Maslows Theory of Needs

Assumptions:
1.
Individual needs are universal and arranged in a hierarchy.
2.
Unfilled needs lead individuals to focus on those needs.
3.
Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs
become strong motivators.
Needs:
4.
Physiological Needs (Air, Food, Sleep, etc.)
5.
Safety and Security Needs (Protection against danger and threat)
6.
Belongingness Needs (Belonging to groups, having friends, etc.)
7.
Esteem Needs (Self-respect and the respect of others)
8.
Self-Actualization Needs (Being all you can be; finding potential)

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: NEEDS

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Basic set of human needs arranged in a

hierarchical order

Level 1: Physiological Needs

Level 2: Safety and Security

Level 3: Belonging, Love, and Social Activities

Level 4: Esteem

Level 5: Self-actualization
or self-fulfillment
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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: NEEDS

II Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory:
Two Types of Needs
Assumptions:
1.
2.

3.
4.

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two separate factors, not opposites.

Factors that produce satisfaction are different from those that promote
dissatisfaction.
Motivators are generally intrinsic factors such as achievement and the
work itself.
Hygiene factors are generally extrinsic factors such as salary and
working conditions.
Motivators are higher level needs and tend to promote satisfaction.
Hygiene factors are lower level needs and tend to promote dissatisfaction

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: NEEDS

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Hygienes
Interpersonal relations (with subordinates)
Interpersonal relations (with peers)
Supervision (technical)
Policy and administration
Working conditions
Personal life

Dissatisfaction
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Motivators
Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement

Satisfaction

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: NEEDS

III McClellands Achievement-Need Theory
Assumptions:
1.
2.

The prospect of achievement motivates more than extrinsic rewards.

Motives are learned and when people learn to value achievement, it becomes a
strong motivator.
To instill motivation:
Place people in situation where they can succeed.
Emphasize setting reasonable and achievable goals.
Get people to take responsibility for their actions.
Provide clear and constructive feedback on performance.

3.

When achievement motivation is high, then individuals set high, but

achievable goals, value and use feedback, have a single-minded absorption
with task accomplishment.
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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: NEEDS

IV Need for Autonomy
1.

Individuals have a need to have a choice in what they do and how

they do it; they need to be in charge of their own lives.

2.

The need for autonomy is a higher level need--likely above selfesteem and below self actualization in Maslows hierarchy.

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: BELIEFS

V Weiners Attribution Theory: Beliefs about Cause

Assumptions:
1.
Individuals naturally seek understandings of why thing happen the way they do.
2.
Individuals make causal connections, i.e., they create knowledge.
3.
Once knowledge is created, they use it to manage their behavior.
4.
The basic causes of achievement are ability, effort, difficulty of the task, and luck.
5.
Key questions:
Causal: What are causes of outcomes?
Locus: Is the cause internal (ability & effort) or external (difficulty & luck)?
Stability: Is the cause fixed or does it change?
Responsibility (Controllable): Can I control the cause?
6.
Maximize motivation by knowing what causes outcomes, knowing the cause is
internal and controllable, and knowing cause is amenable to change.
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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: BELIEFS

Beliefs continued
Ability
Stable view

Ability is uncontrollable and unable to change

Set performance goals that protect their self-esteem

Incremental view

Ability is unstable but controllable

Expanding reservoir of knowledge and skills
Hard work and persistence can pay of
Set performance goals to gauge progress

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:
BELIEFS
VI Greenbergs Equity Theory: Beliefs about
Fairness
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals care about being treated fairly.
2.
People make social comparisons regarding fair and equitable
treatment.
3.
Perceived inequity tends to reduce motivation.
4.
Individuals attempt to reduce feelings of inequity by:
They try to get increased benefits--get a raise.
They try to leave--quit and find another job.
They reduce their inputs--expend less effort on the job.

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Principles of Organizational Justice

Equity Principle

--Rewards should be proportional to contributions.

Perception Principle

--Individual perceptions of fairness define justice.

The Voice Principle

--Participation in decision enhances fairness.

Interpersonal Justice Principle

--Dignified and respectful treatment promotes fairness

Consistency Principle

--Consistently fair behavior promotes a sense of justice

Egalitarian Principle

--Self-interest should be subordinated to good of whole

Correction Principle

--Faulty decisions should be quickly corrected.

Accuracy Principle

--Decisions should be anchored in accurate information

Representative Principle

--Decisions should represent those concerned.

Ethical Principle

--Existing moral & ethical standards should prevail.

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:
BELIEFS
VII Vrooms Expectancy Theory (Beliefs about
Outcomes)
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.
2.
People evaluate subjectively the expected value of outcomes.
3.
Forces in the individual and environment combine to determine
individual values and attitudes.
4.
Motivation is a function of the interaction of expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence.
Expectancy: Can I perform the task?
Instrumentality: If I succeed what are the consequences?
Valence: How strongly do I value the consequences?
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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: BELIEFS

Expectancy
Belief that I can
accomplish
the task

Instrumentality
Belief that good
performance will
be noticed and
rewarded

Valence
An assessment of
the attractiveness
or value of
the rewards

Force of
Motivation

According to expectancy theory,

work
motivation is strongly influenced by
the
interaction of three factors:
expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence.

M = f (E x I x V)

Expectancy Theory
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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:
BELIEFS
VIII Banduras Self-Efficacy Theory: Beliefs about
Capacity
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.
2.
The extent to which people believe that they have the capacity to execute a course of action
that is required to succeed is their self-efficacy, their self efficacy, motivates behavior.
3.
Self-efficacy affects individual choice:
Choose activities in which you will succeed and avoid those in which you believe you will
fail.
4.
Strong self-efficacy increases effort at the task.
5.
Strong self-efficacy increases persistence.
6.
Strong self-efficacy increases resilience.
7.
Sources of strong self-efficacy:
Mastery Experiences
Modeling (Vicarious experiences)
Verbal Persuasion
Physiological State

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A Model of Teacher Efficacy

Analysis of
the
Teaching Task
Sources of
Efficacy
Physiological Cues
Verbal Persuasion
Vicarious
Experience
(Modeling)
Mastery Experience

Teacher
Efficacy

Cognitive
Processin
g
Assessment
of
Teaching
Competence

Consequences of
Teacher Efficacy
Performance

Effort
Persistence
Success

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BUILDING SELF-EFFICACY
IN SCHOOLS
Administrators should try to orchestrate the
following:
Secure instructional time and resources for teachers to plan, collaborate, and
research, to build MASTERY EXPERIENCES.
Allow teachers to have access to models, in the form of conferences,
workshops, visitations, etc., for cultivation of VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES.
Foster emphasis on professionalism and reflective teaching, and reward those
who collaborate and share feedback, to increase SOCIAL PERSUASION.
Attend to teachers afective states and provide encouragement during times of
frustration. Frame performance as a function of acquired skill rather than
inherent capability.

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: GOALS

IX Lockes Goal Theory
Assumptions:
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

If goals are accepted by individuals, they are strong motivators.

Why?
Goals focus attention.
Goals mobilize efforts.
Goals enhance persistence.
Goals promote the development of strategies for success.
Specific goals are generally more effective than general goals.
Difficult, but attainable goals are more effective than easy ones.
To be effective, goals must be embraced by individual.

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: GOAL

SETTING
Characteristics
of
Effective Goals
Specific
Challenging
Attainable
Embraced

Goal
Mechanisms
Focus attention
Mobilize efort
Enhance
persistence
Develop specific
task
strategies

Performance

Feedback
Actual versus Desired Behavior

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TheoriesofMotivation

X Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation comes from such factors as
interest and curiosity in the task itself.
Extrinsic motivation comes from incentives and
disincentives to act, for example, rewards and
punishments.
The key diference between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation is the reason for acting--internal
(intrinsic) or external (extrinsic).
The dichotomy between the two, however, is a bit
too simple because what starts as extrinsic
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motivation (studying to get good grades) may

SUMMARY & REVIEW

Needs Theory

Suggest that people work hard when:

Lower-order needs are metphysiological, safety, and
belongingness needs.
Higher-order needs present the challengeesteem and selfactualization needs.

Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Suggests that:
Unmet lower-level needs produce dissatisfaction with the job.
Gratified higher-level needs produce job satisfaction.

Goal-Setting Theory

Suggests that people work hard when:

They have realistic, specific, and challenging goals.
They are committed to the goals.
They receive feedback about progress toward the goals.

Attribution Theory

Suggests that people work hard when they believe that causes for
success are:
Internaldue to ability and effort.
Not fixedeffort, for example, can be varied from one situation to
another.
Controllablecauses can be controlled by hard work, using
proper strategy, etc.
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SUMMARY & REVIEW

Equity Theory

Suggests that people work hard when they have been fairly
treated and:
They have been given the rewards they deserve.
The rewards have been allocated fairly.
They have been treated with respect and courtesy.

Expectancy Theory

Suggests that people work hard when:

They believe extra effort will improve performance.
Good performance will be noticed and rewarded.
The rewards are valued.

Self-Efficacy Theory

Suggests that people work hard when:

They believe they have the capabilities to be successful.
They believe that the task is not too difficult.
They have had success at completing their tasks.
They have good models of success.

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PRACTICAL IMPERATIVES

Celebrate the successes of your faculty: Positive reinforcement is a

strong motivator.
Articulate clear, specific, and achievable goals: They provide
focused targets for persistent efort.
Nurture an incremental view of intelligence: It enhances
achievement.
Be fair in both deciding and distributing school resources:
Participants expect to be treated fairly.
Equip teachers with skills and resources needed to succeed:
Teachers work smarter when they have the right tools.
Develop a sense of efficacy in teachers and students: Both increase
academic achievement.
Provide teachers with constructive feedback in their quest for goal
achievement; Verbal persuasion increases perseverance.
Create teacher situations that lead to successful experiences:
Mastery experiences are the most valuable source of teacher selfefficacy.
Provide teachers with models of successful practice: Such models
are strong determinants of self-efficacy.
Encourage teachers to accept responsibility for achievement:
Responsibility produces commitment, perseverance, and success.
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