Chapter 2

The Technical Core:

Learning and Teaching
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Levels of Organizational Structure

TalcottParsons:Threelevelsofstructureinorganizations

Technical
Managerial
Institutional
TechnicalCore:systemoforganizationalactivitywheretheproductof
theorganizationisproduced.
Inschools,theteachinglearningprocess,asthetechnicalcore,shapes
manyadministrativedecisions.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Learning Defined
Learning:experienceproducesastablechangeinsomeonesknowledge
orbehavior.
Changemustoccurbecauseofexperience,whetherornotthe
learningisintentionalorunintentional
Noonebestexplanationoflearning,butthreegeneraltheories:
Behavioraltheories:stressobservablechangesinbehaviors,skills,
andhabits
Cognitivetheories:stressinternalmentalactivitiessuchasthinking,
remembering,creating,andproblemsolving
Constructivisttheories:stresshowindividualsmakemeaningof
eventsandactivities.Learning=constructionofknowledge
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Behavioral Perspective on
Learning
Behaviorists not concerned primarily with mental or internal processes,
but rather with changes in behavior brought about by experience.
B.F. Skinner and his followers emphasize antecedents and consequences
as mechanisms for changing behavior.
Environmental influences (antecedents and consequences) shape all
behavior, in the A-B-C pattern:
Antecedent-behavior-consequence: antecedent precedes behavior,
which is followed by a consequence
Consequences of behavior become antecedents for next ABC sequence
Change behavior by changing antecedents, consequences, or both
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Consequences
Earlybehavioralworkfocusedonconsequencesmorethanantecedents.
Kindofconsequenceandtimingofconsequencewillstrengthenorweaken
individualspropensityforacertainbehavior.
Twokindsofconsequences:ReinforcementandPunishment
Reinforcementstrengthensorincreasesfrequencyofbehavior.
Punishmentweakensorsuppressesbehavior.
Becarefulnottoconfusepunishmentwithnegativereinforcement:nomatter
howyoureinforce,ifyourereinforcingyourestrengtheningbehavior.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Reinforcement
Reinforcer:consequencethatstrengthensbehaviorthatitfollows.
Oneindividualsreinforcermightnotbeareinforcerforsomeoneelse:
responsesarehighlyindividualized
Somepsychologistssayreinforcerssatisfyneeds;othersarguethey
reducetensionsorstimulateparticularpartsofthebrain.
Strengthofreinforcementdependsuponindividualsperceptionofthe
event,andthemeaningitholds.
Twomaintypesofreinforcement:positiveandnegative
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Positivereinforcement:occurswhenabehaviorproducesanewstimulusor
motivatingforce
Whenaconsequencestrengthensabehaviorbyaddingastimulus,thebehavior
hasbeenpositivelyreinforced
Negativereinforcement:occurswhenabehaviorremovesoreliminatesastimulus
Ifbehaviorresultsineliminationofanegativestimulus,itsmorelikelytobe
repeated:thebehaviorhasbeennegativelyreinforced
Bothtypesofreinforcementstrengthenbehavior:positivethroughaddingstimuli;
negativebysubtractingstimuli
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Punishment
Ifreinforcementstrengthensbehavior,punishmentsuppressesit:behaviorfollowed
bypunishmentislesslikelytoberepeated
Aswithreinforcers,punishmentsaresomewhatindividualized:whatpunishesone
individualmightnotbeperceivedaspunishmentbyanother

Twomaintypesofpunishment:
1.DirectPunishment(TypeI)
Directpunishment:appearanceofstimulusfollowingbehaviorsuppressesor
weakensbehavior.
2.RemovalPunishment(TypeII)
Removalpunishment:stimulusisremovedfollowingbehaviorinordertoweakenor
suppressit.

BothtypessuppressbehaviorDirectpunishmentbyaddingsomethingtostopit,
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
andremovalpunishmentbywithholdingsomething

Antecedents
Antecedentsprecedebehavior
Helpindividualsdistinguishbetweenbehaviorsthatleadtopositive
consequencesandbehaviorsthatleadtonegativeconsequences:individual
learnstoreadtheantecedent.
Notalwaysthecasethatpeopleareconsciousofreadingtheantecedent,butcues
andpromptscanbedeliberatelyusedtoinfluencebehavior.
Cueing:providinganantecedentjustpriortoaparticularbehavior.
Furnishesinformationaboutwhichbehaviorswillbepunishedandwhich
reinforced.
Allowsteachers,parentstoreinforcebehaviorwithoutresortingtopunishment.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Prompting
Prompting:providinganadditionalcueafterthefirstcue
Twoprinciplesforusingcuesandpromptseffectively:
Makesureenvironmentalstimulusyouwantasacueoccursrightbefore
yourprompt
Fadethepromptassoonaspossible
Example:checklistwhenstudentsworkinpairsonpeertutoring
Graduallyremovethesupportofthechecklist,whichservesasaprompt,
whenstudentsinternalizeprocedures
Monitorprogress,reinforcegoodwork,correctmistakes

Teaching Applications
Guidingprinciplesforteachingcontexts:
Clear,systematicpraiseforgenuineaccomplishments
Linksuccesstoeffortandabilityinordertobuildconfidence
Makesurereinforcesarethingsstudentsvalue
Giveplentyofreinforcementwhenintroducingnewmaterial
Setclearandspecificgoalssoyouknowwhattoreinforce
Offeravarietyofreinforcersandallowstudentstochoose
Structuresituationaroundnegativereinforcementratherthanpunishment
Usecuestohelpestablishnewbehavior

Specificapproachesthatutilizebehavioralprinciples:theGoodBehaviorGame,
PositiveBehaviorSupport(PBS)basedonaFunctionalBehavioralAssessment(FBA),
learningobjectives,anddirectinstruction
Mostusefulwhenlearningnewbehaviorsorexplicitinformation,andwhenlearningis
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
sequentialorfactual

Positive Behavior Support based on a

Functional Behavioral Assessment
FBAWhatarestudentsgettingoutofthenegative
behavior?
1.Receiveattentionfromothersteachers,parent,orpeers.
2.Escapefromsomeunpleasantsituationanacademicor
socialdemand.
3.Getadesireditemoractivity.
4.Meetsensoryneeds,suchasstimulationfromrockingor
flappingarmsforsomechildrenwithautism.

PBSWhatpositivebehaviorscouldleadtothesame
resultsandwhatwillsupportthestudentinlearningthe
newpositivebehaviors?
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Learning Objectives
Instructionalobjective:clearandunambiguousdescriptionofteacherseducational
aimsforstudents
RobertMager:objectivesshoulddescribewhatstudentswillbedoingto
demonstratetheirachievement,howteacherwillknowwhenstudentshave
succeeded
Threepartstogoodobjectives:
1.Intendedstudentbehavior:whatmuststudentdo?
2.Conditionsunderwhichbehavioroccurs:howwillbehaviorberecognizedortested?
3.Criteriaforacceptableperformance:howwellhasstudentdone?

Objectivesusefulundercertainspecificconditions:
Moresuccessfulinpromotinglearningwithlooselystructuredactivities
Usefulwhensignificanceofinformationisunclearfromlearningmaterialsand
activitiesthemselves,i.e.,objectiveshelpfocusstudentsattentiononlearninggoals
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Direct Instruction
A.K.A.,explicitteachingoractiveteaching
Bestappliedtoteachingofbasicskills:sciencefacts,mathematical
computations,vocabularyandgrammarrules
Taughtstepbystep,assessedwithstandardizedtests
BarakRosenshine:SixTeachingFunctionsofeffectivedirectinstruction
1.Reviewandcheckpreviousdayswork
2.Presentnewmaterial
3.Provideguidedpractice
4.Givefeedbackandcorrectivesbasedonstudentanswers
5.Provideindependentpractice
6.Reviewweeklyandmonthly

OtherdirectinstructionapproachesHunter;Good,Grouws,andEbmeier
drawonsimilarelementsofeffectiveinstruction
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Cognitive Perspectives
on Learning
Cognitivetheoristsfocusonthinking,learning,
conceptualization,andproblemsolving
Learningisanactivementalprocess:weplanourresponses,use
systemstohelpusremember,andorganizematerials
Putstheindividualbackinthelearningprocess:whatwebring
tothelearningsituationhasahugeinfluenceonhowandwhat
welearn

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Categorizing Knowledge
Knowledgeasbothmeansandend:existingknowledgeguidesnew
learningthescaffoldthatsupportstheconstructionofallfuture
learning
Generalknowledgevs.Domainspecificknowledge:
General:appliestoavarietyofsituations
Domainspecific:relatestoparticulartaskorsubject
Alsocategorizeknowledgebyhowitsmanifested
Declarativeknowledge:canbedeclared,usuallyinwords
Proceduralknowledge:knowinghowtodosomething
knowledgethatisdemonstrated
Selfregulatory:knowingwhenandwhytoapplydeclarative
andproceduralknowledge
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Information-Processing
Model

Earlyviewshadtheanalogybetweenmindandcomputer:
informationstoredinthreestoragesystems
Sensorymemory:holdingsystemthatmaintainsstimulisothat
perceptualanalysiscanoccur
Workingmemory:(shorttermmemory)holds59bitsofinfoat
atimeforupto20seconds
Longtermmemory:storeshugeamountsofinfoforlong
periodsoftime;maybecodedverballyorvisuallyorboth

Memory=reconstruction:leadstoaccurate,partlyaccurate,or
inaccuraterecall;accurateretrievaldependspartlyonhowinfowas
learned.
Amorerecentviewofmemoryandcognitioniscalledcognitive
science,whichemphasizestheroleofworkingmemory,attention,
sensorymemory,andinteractionsoftheelementsofthesystem.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Sensory Memory
Sensorymemory=theinitialsystemthatbrieflyholdsstimuli
weperceivethroughoursenses;othernamesforsensory
memoryaresensorybuffer,iconicbuffer(forimages),and
echoicmemoryforsounds.
Weattendtosomestimuliandnottoothersthisattentionis
firststepinlearning.
Achallengetoteachersistostructureclassroomenvironmentto
getandkeepstudentattentionatoutsetoflessonandkeepthem
focusedthroughouttheclass.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Working Memory
Workingmemorydefined:wherenewinformationisheldbriefly
andcombinedwithknowledgefromlongtermmemory.
Resemblesscreenofcomputercontentisactivatedinformation,
inthemomentconsciousness.
Capacity=59separatenewitemsatonceortheamountofinfowe
canrehearseinabout1.5seconds
Recenttheories:twoworkingmemorysystemsoneforlanguage
basedinformation,onefornonverbal,spatial,visualinformation
Durationofinfoinworkingmemoryisshort:520seconds.
Easilyoverwhelmedifcognitiveload(especiallyextraneousload)is
toogreat.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Retaining Info in Working

Memory
Useitorloseit:ifinfoinworkingmemoryisnotactivated,itfades
Mostpeopleengageinspecificstrategiestokeepit
Rehearsal:2types
Maintenancerehearsalrepeatinginformationinyourmind
Elaborativerehearsalassociatingtheinfowithsomething
youalreadyknow(infoinlongtermmemory)
Notonlyimprovesworkingmemory,butalsohelpschannelinfo
fromshorttolongtermmemory
Chunking:grouporchunkindividualbitsofinformationinto
meaningfulunits(sizedoesntmatter,#ofbitsdoes)
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Long-Term Memory
Longtermmemoryholdsinformationthatwemovefromworking
memoryforindefinitestorage
Virtuallyunlimited,butnotalwayseasytoaccessspecificinformation
ifmuchisstoredoveralongtime
3mainkindsoflongtermmemory:
1.Episodic:associatedwithparticulartimesandplacespersonal
memoriesofeventsofyourownlife
2.Procedural:howtodothingsmaytakeawhile,butoncelearned,such
knowledgeisrememberedforalongtime
3.Semantic:memoryformeaning:generalconcepts,principles,andtheir
associations

2importantwaysofstoringsemanticmemory
Images:visualrepresentationsmindseye
Schemas:abstractstructures,patterns,systems,scripts

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Storage and Retrieval

Howinfoisprocessedinitiallyhasimpactonrecall.
Morelikelytoremembernewmaterialifyouintegrateitwith
informationalreadystoredinlongtermmemory.
3waystofacilitatethiskindofintegration:
1.Elaboration:addmeaningtonewinfobyconnectingitto
existingknowledge(applyschemas,forinstance,ormake
analogies).
Easiertorecallbecauseelaborationactslikerehearsalkeeps
memoryactivatedlongerinworkingmemory,whichdeepens
itsimprintinlongtermmemory.
2.Organization:structuringinformationhelpsyourememberboth
generalideasandspecificexamples;structurehelpsmapyourway
backtoinfowhenyouneedit.
3.Context:welearnphysicalandemotionalaspectsofcontext
alongwiththeinformationweprocesswithinthatcontext;
replicatingcontexthelpsrecalltheinformation.

Bottomline:themorecompletelyinformationisprocessed
whenwefirstlearnit,thebetterourchancesofrememberingit.

Metacognition
Metacognition:individualsawarenessofhis/herowncognitive
processesandhowtheywork.
Canintentionallyusemetacognitiveunderstandingtoregulate
learning
Planning:decidinghowmuchtimetogivetoatask,what
strategiestouse,howtobegin,etc.
Monitoring:awarenessofhowmuch,howwellImlearning
Evaluation:judgmentsaboutoutcomesofthinkingandlearning
effectivenessofstrategies,timeallocation,etc.
Metacognitiveskillsbegintodevelopatages5to7,andgenerally
improvethroughoutschool.
Superiormetacognitiveskillscancompensateforlowerlevelsof
ability,andcanbetaught.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Teaching Applications
Someguidingprinciplesforteaching:
Usepreviousknowledge,connectionstofocusattentionandaid
encoding
Helpstudentsorganizematerialinmeaningfulchunks
Providereview,repetition,andcontextualization
Exercisemetacognitiveskills
Commontechniquesconsistentwithcognitiveapproaches:
Underliningorhighlighting
Notetaking
Visualaids
Mnemonics
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Constructivist Perspectives
on Learning
Ancestors:Dewey,Piaget,Vygotsky,Gestaltpsychology
Keyassumption:peoplecreateandconstructknowledgerather
thaninternalizeitfromtheexternalenvironment
Severaldifferentapproachestoconstructivism:
Psychological/IndividualPiaget
RadicalPostmodern
SocialVygotsky
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Psychological Constructivism
Emphasizestheindividualsreconstructionofexternalreality
Buildaccuraterepresentationsoftheoutsideworld,oftenusing
processesconsistentwithcognitiveperspectives(schemas,for
example)
Knowledgeisacquiredbytransforming,organizing,and
reorganizingpreviousknowledge
Piagettypicalofpsychologicalconstructivists
Constructionisarationalprocessgeneratingincreasingly
complexreasoningasinPiagetssequenceofdevelopmental
stages
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Radical Constructivism
Theextremeofpsychologicalconstructivism:nobasisfor
evaluatingorinterpretinganybeliefisanybetterorworsethanany
other
Knowledgeconstructedlargelybyinterpersonalinteractionsand
constraintsofcultureandideology
NOTamirrorofexternalworld,becauseoftheseinteractionsand
limitations
Consistentwithpostmodernism,postmodernistcritiquesof
Americaneducation

Social Constructivism
DrawsonVygotskysnotionthatlearningisinherentlysocial,
embeddedinculturalsetting
Socialinteraction,culturaltools,andactivityshapeindividual
developmentandlearning
Allhigherordermentalprocesses,suchasreasoningand
problemsolving,aremediatedbypsychologicaltools,suchas
language,signs,andsymbols.
Knowledge,ideas,attitudes,andvaluesdevelopthrough
appropriatingthewaysofactingandthinkingprovidedbythe
culture
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

How is Knowledge Constructed?

1. Therealitiesandtruthsoftheexternalworld
directknowledgeconstruction
InformationProcessing
2. Internalprocessessuchasorganization,
assimilation,andaccommodationdirect
knowledgeconstructionPiaget
3. Bothexternalandinternalfactorsdirect
knowledgeconstructionVygotsky
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Situated Learning
DrawsontheVygotskysnotionthatlearningis
inherentlysocial,embeddedinculturalsetting
Describedasenculturation,oranormingprocess:
individualsadoptthenorms,behaviors,skills,beliefs,
language,andattitudesofacommunity
Learningpreparesforparticipationinthatcommunity,
whateveritmaybe
Emphasizesthatmuchoflearningissituationspecific;
therefore,studentslearnskillsandknowledgein
meaningfulcontextswithclearconnectionstoreallife
applications
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Teaching Applications
Someguidingprinciplesforteaching:
Employmultiplestrategies,diversecontextsforlearning
Embedproblemsinauthentictasksthatrequirestudentstoapplywhat
theyarelearning
Createenvironmentofthinking,problemsolving,dialogue,openness,and
tolerance
Keepstudentsideasandresponsesatthecenterofinstruction

Commontechniquesconsistentwithconstructivism:
Inquirylearning:teacherpresentspuzzlingproblemorquestionand
studentsorganizehypotheses,datacollectionandanalysis
Cognitiveapprenticeships:studentsobserveexperts,receivecoaching,
practicetogainproficiency,reflectonprogress,andexplorenew
approachestocognitivetasks
Cooperativelearning:workingwithothersenhanceslearningby
requiringstudentstoelaborate,interpret,explain,argue,andcoordinate
informationandprocedureswithothers(jigsawandscriptedcooperation
aretwoexamplesofsuchtechniques

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Practical Imperatives
Ensurethatpositiveactionsarerecognizedandrewarded:Reinforcementstrengthensbehavior.
Accompanyallpunishmentwithrewardsforcorrectbehavior:Emphasizethepositive.
Understandthefunctionofnegativebehavior:Helpstudentsreachtheirgoalsthroughpositive
actionsinstead.
Matchinstructiontolearninggoals:Directteachingisusefulwhenstudentshavelimited
knowledge,
Helpstudentsfocusattentiononthebigideas:Learningisdifficultwhenyoudontknowwhatis
important.
Avoidoverwhelmingworkingmemory:Extraneouscognitiveloadlimitslearning.
Buildknowledgeinlongtermmemorybymakingmanyconnections:Deeplyprocessedand
elaboratedinformationiseasiertoremember.
Teachmemoryandlearningstrategiesdirectly:Withoutguidancesomestudentswillnever
masterpowerfulstrategies.
Createsituationsinwhichstudentsactivelyconstructmeaning:Toinventistounderstand.
Positionstudentsatthecenteroflearning:Buildonthetheirknowledgeandinterests.
Provideauthenticproblemsasalaunchingpadforlearning:Usefulknowledgegrowsfrom
solvingreallifechallenges.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Buildcollaborativeskillsamongstudentsandfaculty:Cooperationleadstorespectandcritical
thinking.