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INTRODUCTION
Multicellular organisms begins their lives as a fertilized egg
From this simple organization they proceed step by step to a much
more complex arrangement
25-3
Cell division
Cell movement
Cell differentiation
Cell death
25-4
25-5
The process by
which a cell or group
of cells governs the
developmental fate
of neighboring cells
Is known as
induction
25-6
CAMs cause the cell to adhere to the extracellular matrix (ECM) and/or
to other cells
25-7
25-8
25-9
Animal Development
Most animals are bilaterians with left-right symmetry
Development in bilaterians generally proceeds in
four overlapping stages (see Figure 25.4)
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25-11
25.2 INVERTEBRATE
DEVELOPMENT
The pattern of cell division and the fate of each cell is known
25-12
Yolk
In the middle
On the inside
On the outside
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25-14
25-15
The Establishment of
the Body Axes
The first stage in Drosophila embryonic pattern
development is the establishment of the body axes
During oogenesis, certain gene products important in early
development are deposited asymmetrically within the egg
After fertilization, these gene products establish
independent developmental programs
These govern the formation of the body axes of the embryo
Bicoid, Nanos, Torso and Toll are examples
25-16
Figure 25.6
25-17
Figure 25.7
25-18
25-19
In the ovaries of female flies, the nurse cells are localized asymmetrically
towards the anterior end of the oocyte
Thus, maternally encoded gene products enter one side of the oocyte
This side will eventually become the anterior end of the embryo
Figure 25.8
25-20
25-21
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25-22
The Establishment of
Segmentation
The next developmental process after axes
formation, is the organization of the embryo into
segments
The segmentation pattern is shown in Figure 25.9
This pattern of positional information will be maintained or
remembered throughout the rest of development
25-23
The pattern of gene expression that occurs in the anterior region of one parasegment and
the posterior region of an adjacent parasegment
Figure 25.9
25-24
Eight adjacent
segments are
missing from the
larva
Anterior portion
of each segment
is missing from
the larva
Defective
gene
Even-numbered
parasegments
are missing
from the larva
Defective
gene
Defective
gene
Figure 25.10
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3. The gap genes and maternal effect genes then activate the
pair-rule genes
4. The pair-rule genes then regulate the segment polarity
genes
Later in development, the anterior end of one parasegment and the
posterior end of another parasegment will develop into a segment
Each segment will have particular morphological characteristics
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Figure 25.11
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lab (labial)
pb (proboscipedia)
Dfd (Deformed)
Scr (Sex combs reduced)
Antp (Antennapedia)
25-30
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Antennapedia
complex
bithorax
complex
Fly
chromosome
lab pb Dfd Scr Antp Ubx abd-A Abd-B
Embryo
(10 hours)
Adult
25-31
25-32
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Figure 25.13
25-33
25-35
Figure 25.14
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The Nematode
Caenorhabditis elegans
This invertebrate has been the subject of numerous
studies in developmental genetics
Life cycle
The embryo develops within the eggshell and hatches
when it reaches 550 cells
After hatching it passes through four successive molts
It takes about 3 days for a fertilized egg to develop into an
adult worm
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2. Hermaphrodite
An adult hermaphrodite is composed of 959 somatic cells
It produces about 2,000 gametes (both sperm and eggs)
25-39
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Fertilized egg
AB
ABa ABp
Nervous
system,
skin,
musculature
MS
EMS
P1
P2
Musculature,
Nervous
system,
gonad
Skin,
Nervous
system
Germ line
Musculature
10
Intestine
Head
Tail
1.2 mm
Figure 25.15
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25-41
The Hypothesis
Mutations that cause an egg-laying defective
phenotype may affect the timing of cell lineages
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Experimental level
1. Obtain a large number of C. elegans Normal adult worm:
strains that have a defective egg-laying
phenotype. The wild-type strain was
also studied as a control.
Single row of eggs
Conceptual level
Intestine
Egg-laying mutant:
Intestine
Many eggs
crowded inside
In wild type:
T cell
L1 (first
larval
stage)
Dies
L2 (second
larval
stage)
Figure 25.16
25-44
The Data
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Wild type
T
L1
n355
T.a
10
n536
n540
T.p
T.ap
T.pa
T.pp
T.aa
X
L2 20
L3 30
L4 40
Neurons
Epidermal cells
Programmed to die
25-45
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Wild type
n536
n355
n540
T.a
L1
10 T.aa
L2
20
L3
30
L4
40
T.p
T.ap
T.pa
T.pp
Neurons
It is now known
that the three
mutants are
located in a
gene called
lin-14
Epidermal cells
X
Programmed to die
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25.3 VERTEBRATE
DEVELOPMENT
Historically, development was extensively studied in
amphibians and birds
Eggs are rather large and easy to manipulate
Chromosome 6
Chromosome 11
Chromosome 15
Chromosome 2
Figure 25.17
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Figure 25.19
25-54
Cell Differentiation
Cell determination
A cell is destined (predetermined) to become a particular
cell type
Cell differentiation
A cells morphology and function have changed, usually
permanently, into a highly specialized cell type
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Inhibitor of
differentiation
Figure 25.20
25-59