3.1.

1 LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS

n Law of Definite Proportions: States that

different samples of a pure substance
always contains the same proportion of
elements by mass.
Example: Every molecule of water H O
2
contains 1 part Hydrogen and 8 parts
Oxygen by mass.

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3.1.2 LAW OF CONSERVATIONOF MASS

n Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is

neither created or destroyed in normal
chemical reactions.
 The total massof all reactants = the total
mass of all products.


* Note → Nuclear reactions are an exception



to this rule covered by E = M C 2

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3.1.3 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

n Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can not

be created or destroyed … only changed from
one form to another.
Example: Exothermic reactions are chemical
reactions which release heat. This heat is not
being “created”by the reaction, just released from
its original form. This energy existed in the form
of chemical energy in the bonds of the reactants..

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3.1.4 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
MASS AND ENERGY
n Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy:
The total amount of Matter and Energy in
the Universe is Constant. If the amount
of Energy Increases, the amount of
Matter must Decrease.
Example: In Nuclear Reactions, a small

amount of Matter disappears and is replaced

by an equivalent amount of Energy.

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4.1.1 ATOMIC WEIGHT SCALE

Atomic Weight Scale: An atomic weight

scale is used to measure small particles such
as atoms and molecules.
Atomic Mass Unit (AMU) : This is the basic

unit of the atomic weight scale.


1 AMU = 1.66 x 10 -24 g

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4.1.2 ATOMIC MASS OF ELEMENTS

Elements exist as different isotopes therefore

all atoms of an element are not exactly
equal in mass.
Example: C – 12 and C – 14
 C – 12 has 6 p+ , 6 no and 6 e- giving it
an atomic mass of 12 AMU
 C – 14 has 6 p+, 8 no and 6 e - giving it an
atomic mass of 14 AMU

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4.1.2 ATOMIC MASS OF ELEMENTS

Average Atomic Mass: The atomic mass



reported on the Periodic Table reflects the

average atomic mass of all isotopes of the
element. This average is a weighted
average which reflects the relative
abundance of all isotopes of atoms of that
element.

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4.1.3 MOLECULAR MASS

Molecular Mass: The mass of a molecule

which is the sum of the atomic masses of all
atoms present in the molecule.
Example: CO has a molecular mass of
2
44.01 g.
 C 12.01 x 1 = 12.01 g
 O 16.00 x 2 = 32.00 g
 44.01 g


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4.1.4 CALCULATING MOLECULAR
MASS OF MOLECULES
Molecular Masses of Elements.
 The molecular mass of most elements on
the Periodic Table is listed as the Atomic
Mass.
Examples: H 1.008 g
 B 10.81 g
 C 12.00 g
 Ca 40.08 g
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4.1.4 MOLECULAR MASSES OF ELEMENTS

Special Molecular Masses to Remember:

Phosphorus: This element exists as FOUR

Phosphorus atoms P4
 The Atomic Mass of Phosphorus is 30.97
g.
 The Molecular Mass of Phosphorus P4
 P4 30.97 g x 4 = 123.88 g

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4.1.4 MOLECULAR MASSES OF ELEMENTS

Special Molecular Masses to Remember:

Sulfur: This element exists as an Eight

Membered Ring of sulfur atoms S8

 The Atomic Mass of Sulfur is 32.07 g.
 The Molecular Mass of Sulfur S8
 S8 32.07 g x 8 = 256.56 g

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4.1.4 MOLECULAR MASSES OF ELEMENTS

Special Molecular Masses to Remember:

Diatomic Gases: These elements exists as

Diatomic Molecules and their Molecular

Mass is double the Atomic Mass on the
Periodic Table.
 The Diatomic Gases are H2 N2 O 2
 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2

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4.1.4 MOLECULAR MASSES OF ELEMENTS

Special Molecular Masses to Remember:

Diatomic Gases:

 Nitrogen N has a mass of 14.01 g

 Nitrogen Gas is Diatomic so its Molecular
Mass is …
 N2 14.01 g x 2 = 28.02 g

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4.1.5 GRAM ATOMIC WEIGHT

n Gram Atomic Weight: A term which

relates the Atomic Weight of an atom in
grams. Gram Atomic Weights are based
on a system of Relative weights.
n The standard used is the Carbon atom
which has a mass of exactly 12.00 g.
n

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4.1.5 GRAM ATOMIC WEIGHT

n Relative Atomic Weights:

 The mass of one Carbon atom is taken as exactly
12.00 g. In this way one Hydrogen atom has 1/12
this mass which is 1.0 g.
Carbon has 12 subatomic particles with mass

 (6 p+ and 6 no) .
Hydrogen has 1/12 as many subatomic particles

compared to Carbon. (1 p+)

Magnesium has 24 subatomic particles

 and therefore a relative atomic mass of 24.00 g.

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4.1.6 GRAM MOLECULAR WEIGHT

n Gram Molecular Weight: A term which

relates the Molecular Weight of a
molecule in grams. Gram Molecular
Weights are also based on the Relative
Weight System.

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4.1.7 PERCENTAGE OF ELEMENTS IN A
COMPOUND
n Compounds consist of combinations of
atoms. The number of atoms of each
element present is given by the formula.
n The total mass of the compound is the sum
of the masses of the atoms present.
n The percentage of each element present can
be calculated.

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4.1.7 PERCENTAGE OF ELEMENTS IN A
COMPOUND
n Percentage Calculation:
CO consists of Carbon and Oxygen in a ratio of 1:2.
2
The molecular mass is 44.01 g.
% C = 12.01 g x 100% = 27.29 %
 44.01 g
% O = 32.00 g x 100 % = 72.71 %
 44.01 g
 Total: 100%

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4.2.1 DEFINITIONOF THE MOLE

n MOLE: A measuring unit used in

Chemistry to count atoms, molecules or
ions. Since these items are individually
very small in mass, a very large number
of them must be taken together to be
measured conveniently.

1 MOLE = 6.02 x 10 23 items

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4.2.2 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER

n Amadeo Avogadro: The Italian Scientist

who first recognized the importance of
the relationship between mass and
number.
n The mass of an element or compound can
be used to find the number of atoms or
molecules present.
n Avogadro’s Number is the number of items
in One Mole: 6.02 x 10 23
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4.2.3 MOLAR MASS DEFINITION

Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of an

element or compound.
Examples:

 1 mole of N2 = 28.02 g
 1 mole of Cl2 = 70.90 g
 1 mole of HCl = 36.46 g
 1 mole of LiOH = 23.95 g

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4.2.4 INTERCONVERTING UNITS

n MOLES
n GRAMS
n ATOMS
n MOLECULES
n ATOMIC MASS UNITS

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4.3.1 DEFINE EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Empirical Formula: A chemical formula

which gives the simplest whole number
ratio of atoms present in a compound.
Examples: NaCl Ratio 1 : 1
 BeF2 Ratio 1 : 2
 B I3 Ratio 1 : 3
 Al2O3 Ratio 2 : 3

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4.3.2 EMPIRICAL FORMULA CALCULATIONS

Empirical Formula Calculations:

 Chemical Calculations in which you
must determine the Empirical Formula or
Ratio of elements present in a compound.

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4.3.3 DEFINE MOLECULAR FORMULA

Molecular Formula: A chemical formula

which gives the exact number of atoms of
each element present in a molecule.
Examples: Compounds of N & O have

different Molecular Formulas.

 Nitric Oxide NO (1:1)
 Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 (1:2)
 Dinitrogen Tetraoxide N2O4 (1:2)

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4.3.4 MOLECULAR FORMULA
CALCULATIONS
Molecular Formula Calculations:
 Chemical calculations in which you
must determine the Molecular Formula of a
compound given the Empirical Formula and
additional information of masses.

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4.4.1 EXPLAIN EQUATION SYMBOLS

Chemical Equations:
 Reactants appear to the LEFT of the 
 Products appear to the RIGHT of the 
 The  symbolizes the reaction process.
 Physical States are indicated in brackets:
 Solid (s) Liquid (l) Gas (g) Aqueous (aq)

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4.4.2 CONSERVATION OF MASS IN
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Conservation of Mass:
Total Mass Reactants = Total Mass Products

Example: A + B  C + D
 12 g 30 g 15 g 27 g

42 g = 42 g

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4.4.3 BALANCING EQUATIONS

Balancing Equations: A process of writing

chemical equations so that the total number
of atoms of each type is the same on each
side of the equation.
 For each element, the total # of atoms on
the Left must equal the total # of atoms on
the Right.


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4.5.1 ACTIVITY SERIES

Activity Series: A list of elements which

shows their comparative reactivity.
Examples: Halogen Activity Series
 F  Cl  Br  I
 Metal Activity Series
LiKCaNaMgAlZnCrFe

NiSnPbH CuHgAgPtAu

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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Composition Reactions
 A + B  AB
Example

 Hydrogen + Chlorine  Hydrogen

Chloride
 H2 (g) + Cl 2 (g)  2 HCl (g)


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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Decomposition Reactions:
 AB  A + B
Example:

 Lithium Bromide  Lithium + Bromine

 2 LiBr (s)  2 Li (s) + Br2 (g)

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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Single Replacement Reactions:

 Metal Activity Series
 A + BC  AC + B
Example:

Lithium + Potassium Chloride 



Lithium
Chloride + Potassium
 Li (s) + KCl (s)  LiCl (s) + K (s)


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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Single Replacement Reactions:

 Halogen Activity Series
 A + BC  BA + C
Example:

 Fluorine + Magnesium Chloride 

 Magnesium Fluoride + Chlorine
 F2 (g) + MgCl2 (s)  MgF2 (s) + Cl2 (g)

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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Double Replacement Reaction

 AB + CD  AD + CB
Example:

Sodium Chloride + Magnesium Oxide 

 Sodium Oxide + Magnesium Chloride

 2NaCl (s) + MgO (s)  Na2O (s) +
MgCl2

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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Hydrocarbon Combustion Reactions:

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen 

 Carbon Dioxide + Water

Example:

 Methane + Oxygen 

 Carbon Dioxide + Water

 CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

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4.5.3 WRITING VARIOUS TYPES OF
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

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4.6.1 DEFINE STOICHIOMETRY

Stoichiometry: The study of the relative

quantities of reactants and products in a
chemical reaction.
 Given a specific mass of a reactant we can
calculate the exact amount of a specific
product we can expect to produce.

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4.6.2 THEORETICAL YIELD

Theoretical Yield: The amount of product



that is produced by a chemical reaction as

predicted by the reaction’s stoichiometry.

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4.6.3 ACTUAL YIELD

Actual Yield: The measured quantity of

product obtained in a chemical reaction.
 Many times, the Actual Yield of a reaction

is less than the Theoretical Yield due to

factors which do not allow the reaction to
run to completion.

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4.6.4 DETERMINING MASSES FROM
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Mole Ratio: The ratio of each reactant to
each product in a balanced chemical
equation.
The Mole Ratio will allow us to determine

the exact number of Moles of any Reactant

used or Product formed in a reaction.
The Number of Moles can be converted to

Grams to determine the final answer in

Grams.
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4.6.5 DETERMINE VOLUMES FROM
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Mole Ratio: The Ratio of each reactant to
each product in a balanced chemical
equation.
 The Mole Ratio will allow us to calculate

the exact number of moles of gasreacted or

produced. Using the Molar Volume of a
Gas, the volume of gas can be calculated.

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4.6.6 PERCENTAGE YIELD CALCULATION

Percentage Yield: A comparison of Actual

Yield compared to Theoretical Yield
expressed as a percent.
Formula:

 % Yield = Actual Yield X 100%

 Theoretical Yield

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4.6.7 LIMITING REAGENT PROBLEMS

Limiting Reagent: The reactant that is



completely consumed during a chemical

reaction, limiting the amount of product
which can be produced.

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4.6.8 MOLARITY OF SOLUTIONS

Molarity: A unit of concentration expressed

as the number of moles of solute present in
one litre of solution.

Formula: Molarity = # Moles
 Litre


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4.6.9 MOLALITY OF SOLUTIONS

Molality: A unit of concentration expressed

as the number of moles of solute present in
one Kilogram of solvent

Formula: Molality = # Moles
 Kg


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4.6.10 DILUTION CALCULATIONS

Dilution: The process of adding more



solvent to a concentrated solution to reduce

its concentration.


Formula: M i
 X Vi = M f x V f

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4.6.11 CALCULATE PERCENT BY MASS

Mass / Mass Percent: A unit of concentration

showing the Mass of Solute compared to
the Total Mass of Solution , expressed as a
percentage.
Formula: M/M % = Mass of Solute x 100 %
 Mass of Solution

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4.6.12 CALCULATE MOLE FRACTIONS

Mole Fraction: A unit of concentration showing the

number of moles of a component divided by the
total number of moles in the mixture.
NOTE: Mole Fraction as a concentration unit

applies only to mixtures of gases.

Formula:

 Mole Fraction (X) = Moles of Gas A

Total Moles of All Gases

CH1200 UNITS 3 & 4

4.6.13 CALCULATIONS ON REACTIONS
IN SOLUTION

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