HUM 102 ESSENTIALS OF

COMMUNICATION
Session1

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Semantics
Synonyms
Synonyms are different words with identical or at least similar meanings.
Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a
synonym is called synonymy

derogatory

attain

delay

postpone

distress

grief

curtail

candid

humiliating
achieve

reduce
frank
2

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abandon

desert(v)

Antonyms
An antonym is a word which means the opposite of another word. Antonyms are also
called opposites. One way of mastering a language involves learning its vocabulary.
Synonyms and opposites are helpful in this sense.
raw
ripe
sacred
profane
proud
humble
transparent
opaque
innocent
guilty
miser
spendthrift
guest
host
confess
deny
ancient
modern
barren
fertile
deposit
withdraw
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Homophones
A homophone is a word that has the same sound as another
word but is spelled differently and has a different meaning.
compliment
positive remark
complement
which makes something complete
Mention
to refer
Mansion
building
corpse
dead body
corps
a technical branch of army

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Formation of words

Formation of nouns:
Nouns can be framed from adjectives or verbs using the
following suffixes.
suffix
-ance
-ence
-er, -or
-ian

meaning
example
state
performance,attendance
quality of
independence,confidence
a person who does
programmer, operator
pertaining to
electrician,musician

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Formation of verbs
Verbs can be framed from adjectives or nouns by using suffixes or
prefixes.

suffix example
meaning
ize/-ise
to make
-ate
''
-ify
''
-en
''

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computerize,civilize
automate, activate
simplify,classify
harden, widen

Formation of Adjectives
suffix
-al
computational,
-ar
-ic

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meaning
example
having the quality of
''
''

circular,angular
magnetic, automatic

Part 2- Syntax

Sentence synthesis
Types of sentences:
1. Simple Sentence (has one verb and one subject)
2. Complex Sentence (main clause + subordinate clause )
3. Compound Sentence (clauses of same rank)

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Formation of Simple
Sentences
The following are the chief ways of combining two or more
Simple Sentences into one Simple Sentence.
1. By using a Participle:
He saw a tiger. He ran away.
Seeing a tiger, he ran away.

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2. By using a noun or a phrase in apposition:

This is my friend. His name is Vikas.
This is my friend Vikas.
Hinduism was founded in 2500 years ago. It is one of the
greatest religions.
Hinduism, one of the greatest religions, was founded in 2500
years ago.

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3. By using a preposition with noun or gerund:

He has failed many times. He still hopes to win.

Having failed for many times, he still hopes to win.
Her husband died. She heard the news. She fainted.
On hearing the news of the death of her husband, she fainted.

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4. By using an infinitive:

I have some duties. I must perform them.

I have some duties to perform.
We must finish this exercise. There are still three sentences.
We have still three sentences in this exercise to finish.
He wanted to educate his son. He sent him to London.
He sent his son to London to educate him.

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5. By using an adverb or an Adverbial Phrase:

He answered me. His answer was correct.

He answered me correctly.
The sun set. The boys had not finished the game.
The boys had not finished the game by sunset.

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Formation of Complex
Sentences
Two or more Simple Sentences can be combined to form a
single Complex Sentence in three ways:
1. Using a Subordinate Clause as a Noun Clause:
When two sentences are combined to form a Complex
Sentence, one of the two sentences can be converted into a
Noun clause in the new sentence.

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Examples
He will be late. That is certain.
That he will be late is certain.
He may be innocent. I do not know.
I do not know whether he is innocent
The clouds would disperse. That was our hope. Our hope was cheering.
Our hope that the clouds would disperse, was cheering.
The game was lost. It was the consequences of his carelessness.
Because of his carelessness, the game was lost.

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2. Using a Subordinate Clause as an Adjective Clause:

In the following examples, the Subordinate Clause is an Adjective Clause.
Examples:
A fox once met a lion. The fox had never seen a lion before.
A fox who had never met a lion before met him.
She has a parrot. It speaks like a child.
She has a parrot which speaks like a parrot.
A cottager and his wife had a hen. The hen laid an egg everyday. The egg
was golden.
The hen, which a cottager and his wife had, laid a golden egg everyday.

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Formation of
Compound Sentences
This can be done in four ways:
1.Using Conjunctions which add one statement to another.
Examples :
Night came on. The room grew dark.
Night came on and the room grew dark.
He is a fool. He is a knave.
He is not only a fool but also a knave.
He is a fool as well as a knave.

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2.Using conjunctions which express opposition or contrast between

two statements.
Examples :
He is slow. He is sure.
He is but he is sure.
I was annoyed. I kept quite.
I was annoyed, still I kept quite.
He failed. He persevered.
He failed, nevertheless he persevered.
He will not oppose my design. I can not approve of it.
He will not oppose my design; however, I can not approve of it.

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3.Using conjunctions which express a choice between two alternatives .

Examples :
Make haste. You will be late.
Make haste or you will be late.
Do be a borrower. Do be a lender.
Be neither a borrower nor a lender.
It will be noticed that the conjunctions or, eitheror and neithernor
express a choice between two alternatives

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4.Using conjunctions which express an inference .

Examples :
He was obstinate. He was punished.
He was obstinate; therefore he was punished.
It is raining heavily. I will take an umbrella with me.
It is raining heavily, so I will take an umbrella with me.

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Verb Patterns
There are 25 verb patterns in English. Verb pattern 1
to 5 are based on verb intransitive and rest on verb
transitive.
Transisitive verbs are those which take an object and
verb intransitive are those which do not take an
object.

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VerbPatterns
Modal Sentences
S +be+subject complement/adjunct
This is a book.
S +vi
The moon rose.
S+vi+(for)+adverbial adjunct
We walked (for) five miles.
S +vi+adverbial adjunct
Go away/Come in.
S+vi+adjective/(pro)noun
She married young.
S+vi+present participle
They've gone dancing.
S+vi+ preposition+(pro)noun
You can rely on me.

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 S +vi+(preposition)(+it)+clause
Have you decided (on) what to do
next?
S +vi+to infinitive
We stopped to rest.
S +vi+to infinitive
He awoke to find the house on fire.
S +vi+to infinitive
He agreed to come at once.
S +seem/appear +(tobe)+adjective/noun
He seemed to be surprised atthe news.
S +seem/appear/happen/chance+to infinitive
She appears to have left already.

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S +be+to infinitive
At what time am I to come?
S +anomalous finite+infinitive
You needn't wait.
S +vt +(pro)noun
Everyone likes her.
S +vt +(pro)noun
She has green eyses.
S +vt +gerund
She enjoys palying tennis.
S +vt + gerund
He began talking about his family.
S +need/want/bear + gerund
He needs looking after.
S +vt +(not)+to infinitive
I forgot to post your letter.

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S +have/ought +(not)+to infinitive

He often has to work overtime.
S +vt +interrogative pronoun/adverb+to infinitiveI couldn't decide what to do next.
S +vt +that clause
Do you think (that) it will rain?
S +vt +dependent clause/question
Does anyone know how it happened?
S +vt +(pro)noun+that clause
I convinced him that I was innocent.
S +vt +(pro)noun(IO)+(pro)noun(DO)
He doesn't owe me anything.
S +vt +(pro)noun(IO)+(pro)noun(DO)
Will you do me a favour?
S +vt +(pro)noun+(pro)noun
Ask him his name.
S +vt+(pro)noun(DO)+to+(pro)noun
He sold his car to his sister.

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S +vt +(pro)noun(DO)+for +(pro)noun

She made a new dress for her daughter.
S +vt +(pronoun)(DO)+ preposition+(pronoun)
I explained my difficulty to him.
S +vt +(pro)noun(DO)+adverbial phrase
Please put this book on my desk.
S +vt +adverbial partic+(pro)noun(DO)Take your shoes off.
S +vt +(pro)noun(DO)+toinfinitive
He brought his brother to see me.
S +vt +(pro)noun(DO)+as/like/if +noun/clause
Her parents spoilt her as a child.
S +vt +(pro)noun+infinitive
Do you want me to stay?
S +vt +(pro)noun+(not)+toinfinitive
I felt the house shake.
S +vt +(pro)noun+infinitive
Let me go!

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 S +vt +(pro)noun+ present participle

I can smell something burning

S +vt+(pro)noun+ present participle

They left me waiting outside.

S +vt +(pro)noun /possessive+ing formof theverb

I can't imagine him/his saying that.
S +vt +(pro)noun+interrogative+toinfinitive Tell me what to do next.
S +vt +(pro)noun+dependent clause/question
Tell me what your name is.

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 S+vt +(pro)noun(DO)+adjective
He painted the walls green.
S +vt +(pro)noun(DO)+noun
They named their son Richard.
S +vt +(pro)noun(DO)+ past participle
I want the work finished by Saturday.
S +have+(pro)noun(DO)+ past participle
Do you have any money saved?
S +have/get +(pro)noun(DO)+past participle
Please have this letter translated.
S +vt +(pro)noun(DO)+(tobe)+adjective/noun.
Do you consider him (to be) innocent?

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Unit II Phonetics
There are 44 speech sounds in English. (20
vowels and 24 consonants)
Here are the symbols for all the speech sounds
or phonemes.

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consonants IPA

b
d
f
g
h
j
k

bad, lab
did, lady
find, if
give, flag
how, hello
yes, yellow
cat, back

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l
m
n

p
r
s

leg, little
man, lemon
no, ten
sing, finger
pet, map
red, try
sun, miss

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t
t

v
w

she, crash
tea, getting
check, church
think, both
this, mother
voice, five
wet, window

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 z zoo, lazy
pleasure, vision
d just, large

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vowels IPA

cup, luck
arm, father
cat, black
met, bed
away, cinema

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: turn, learn
hit, sitting
i: see, heat
hot, rock
: call, four
put, could
u: blue, food

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a five, eye
a now, out
e say, eight
o go, home
boy, join
e where, air
near, here
pure, tourist

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Classification of
consonants.
Consonanats are divided on three different
basis:
Position of vocal cords
Manner of articulation
Place of articulation

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 According to the position of vocal cords they are divided as

follows:

voiceless (9)
[p] [h]
[t]
[k]
[f]
[]
[s]
[ ]
[t]

[b]
[d]
[ ]
[v]
[]
[z]
[ ]
[d]

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voiced(15)
[w]
[m]
[n]
[l]
[ ]
[r]
[]

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 On the basis of manner of articulation consonants are classified as

under:
Stops or Plosives

Stop, an oral occlusive, where there is occlusion (blocking) of the oral

vocal tract, and no nasal air flow, so the air flow stops completely.
Examples include English /p t k/ (voiceless) and /b d / (voiced).
Nasal
Nasal, a nasal occlusive, where there is occlusion of the oral tract, but air
passes through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determine
the resonant cavity that gives different nasals their characteristic sounds.
Examples include English /m, n/.

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Fricatives
In the stop [t], the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and cuts off the airflow. In
[s], the tongue tip approaches the alveolar ridge but doesn't quite touch it. There is
still enough of an opening for airflow to continue, but the opening is narrow
enough that it causes the escaping air to become turbulent (hence the hissing sound
of the [s]). In a fricative consonant, the articulators involved in the constriction
approach get close enough to each other to create a turbluent airstream. The
fricatives of English are [f], [v], [], [], [s], [z], [], and [].
Approximants
In an approximant, the articulators involved in the constriction are further apart still
than they are for a fricative. The articulators are still closer to each other than when
the vocal tract is in its neutral position, but they are not even close enough to cause
the air passing between them to become turbulent. The approximants of English are
[w], [j], [r], and [l].

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 Affricates
An affricate is a single sound composed of a stop portion and a fricative
portion. In English [t], the airflow is first interuppted by a stop which is
very similar to [t] (though made a bit further back). But instead of finishing
the articulation quickly and moving directly into the next sound, the tongue
pulls away from the stop slowly, so that there is a period of time
immediately after the stop where the constriction is narrow enough to
cause a turbulent airstream. In [t], the period of turbulent airstream
following the stop portion is the same as the fricative [ ]. English [d ] is an
affricate like [t], but voiced.

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 Laterals
Pay attention to what you are doing with your tongue when you say the
first consonant of [lif] leaf. Your tongue tip is touching your alveolar ridge
(or perhaps your upper teeth), but this doesn't make [l] a stop. Air is still
flowing during an [l] because the side of your tongue has dropped down
and left an opening. (Some people drop down the right side of their tongue
during an [l]; others drop down the left; a few drop down both sides.)
Sounds which involve airflow around the side of the tongue are called
laterals. Sounds which are not lateral are called central.
[l] is the only lateral in English. The other sounds of Englihs, like most of
the sounds of the world's languages, are central.

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 Flap
Flap, often called a tap, is a momentary closure of the oral cavity. The "tt"
of "utter" and the "dd" of "udder" are pronounced as a flap in North
American and Australian English. Many linguists distinguish taps from
flaps, but there is no consensus on what the difference might be. No
language relies on such a difference. There are also lateral flaps.
Trill
Trill, in which the articulator (usually the tip of the tongue) is held in place,
and the airstream causes it to vibrate. The double "r" of Spanish "perro" is
a trill. Trills and flaps, where there are one or more brief occlusions,
constitute a class of consonant called rhotics.

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 According to place of articulation consonants are

classified as:
Bilabial
In a bilabial consonant, the lower and upper lips
approach or touch each other. English [p], [b], and
[m] are bilabial stops.

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 Labiodental
In a labiodental consonant, the lower lip approaches or touches
the upper teeth. English [f] and [v] are bilabial fricatives.
Dental
In a dental consonant, the tip or blade of the tongue
approaches or touches the upper teeth. English [] and [] are
dental fricatives. There are actually a couple of different ways
of forming these sounds:
The tongue tip can approach the back of the upper teeth, but
not press against them so hard that the airflow is completely
blocked.
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 Alveolar
In an alveolar consonant, the tongue tip (or less often the tongue blade)
approaches or touches the alveolar ridge, the ridge immediately behind the
upper teeth. The English stops [t], [d], and [n] are formed by completely
blocking the airflow at this place of articulation. The fricatives [s] and [z]
are also at this place of articulation, as is the lateral approximant [l].
Postalveolar
In a postalveolar consonant, the constriction is made immediately behind
the alveolar ridge. The constriction can be made with either the tip or the
blade of the tongue. The English fricatives [] and [ ] are made at this
POA, as are the corresponding affricates [t] and

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[d].
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Retroflex
In a retroflex consonant, the tongue tip is curled backward in the mouth. English [r]
is a retroflex approximant -- the tongue tip is curled up toward the postalveolar
region (the area immediately behind the alveolar ridge).
Palatal
In a palatal consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the hard
palate. English [j] is a palatal approximant -- the tongue body approaches the hard
palate, but closely enough to create turbulence in the airstream.
Velar
In a velar consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the soft palate,
or velum. English [k], [], and [] are stops made at this POA. Glottal
The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds. In an [h], this opening is narrow
enough to create some turbulence in the airstream flowing past the vocal folds. For
this reason, [h] is often classified as a glottal fricative.

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Transcription of words

that
However
difficult
another
you
again
which
world
their
area
about
psychology

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t
haev
dfklt
n
ju:
gen
wt
w:ld
e
eri
bat
sakldi
48

group
large
number
general
always
head
next
information
quick
question
nervous
local
during
although

gru:p
l:d
nmb
denrl
:lwez
hed
nekst
nf men
kwk
kwestn
n:vs
lokl
djr
:lo

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Phonetics
Short notes:
Phoneme - A phoneme is a basic element of a spoken
language or dialect, from which words in that language or
dialect are analyzed as being built up. The phoneme is defined
by the International Phonetic Association as "the smallest
segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful
contrasts between utterances"

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Syllable
A unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or
without surrounding consonants, forming the whole or a part
of a word.One or more letters representing a unit of spoken
language consisting of a single uninterrupted sound.
A syllable is made up of either a single vowel sound (as in the
pronunciation of oh) or a combination of vowel and
consonant(s) (as in no and not).
A syllable that stands alone is called a monosyllable. A word
containing two or more syllables is called a polysyllable.

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Section B
Part II
Precis writing: A prcis is a summary of a book or article in which the
authors story or argument is accurately and fairly reproduced, but in the students
own words.It recounts the basic narrative of the story (if fiction) or the basic
arguments of the book or article (if nonfiction) in 1/3 to of the original length.

Prcis writing involves summarising a document to extract the maximum amount

of information, then conveying this information to a reader in the minimum number
of words. In reducing the number of words, it is usually necessary to paraphrase
from the original document. Paraphrasing simply means the expressing of ideas
from the original document in your own words. When you paraphrase, you should
try to write as concisely as possible, cuffing out all the unnecessary verbiage, but
you must always be very careful not to lose or distort the original meaning.

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Dos in Precis Writing

1. Read the article many times most carefully.
2. Write a precis of the article in which you state the entire argument and
present the logical progression (the development) of the argument so that
condensation will be accurate. Thoughts and facts should not be rearranged
so that the essence of original should not be distorted.
3. Reduce the article to one-fifth to one-quarter of its original length and
omit nothing from the essential argument.
4. Type the precis and begin with your abstraction of the central, informing
idea of the article. It should read like an independent text with proper
beginning, middle and an end.
5. As far as possible, it should be put in one paragraph.

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Donts in Precis Writing

1. Use clear, factual expressions; do not attempt to copy the style of the
original source. You may use key words and phrases only when you are
expressing ideas which are technically precise or when you feel
comfortable using the writers own words.
2. Do not introduce ideas of your own. DO not criticize or change the authors
ideas The precis adds nothing of your ownno comments or
interpretations at all. The purpose is to condense the original, not to explain
it.
3. Unimportant points, including details, illustrations and anecdotes, should be
discarded
4. Do not use abbreviations or contractions.
5. Do not divide prcis into paragraphs unless the original passage is very
long.
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Debate
What is a debate?
A debate involves a discussion of the pros and
cons of an issue. Debating successfully is all
about using argument and persuasion to
convince other people that your views are
right.

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 If a debate is a form of argument then it logically follows that there must

be something to argue about. This is called the TOPIC. The topic changes
from debate to debate. They are often about current issues of public
importance ("That Canberra should have self government") or about
general philosophies or ideas ("That beauty is better than brains"). All
topics begin with the word "That". As in other arguments there are two
sides to any topic. The team that agrees with the topic is called the
AFFIRMATIVE (or the `government' in parliamentary debating) and the
team that disagrees with the topic is called the NEGATIVE (or the
`opposition' in parliamentary debating). When organising a debate it is
important to select a topic that is appropriate to the age and education of
the debaters concerned. Often topics will cover areas that the debaters have
a specific interest

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RULES : THE ROLES OF THE SPEAKERS.

In a debating team each speaker has specified roles that they must fulfil to
play their part in the team. They are laid out below in the order that the
speakers will speak.

1st Affirmative must:

- define the topic.
- present the affirmative's team line.
- outline briefly what each speaker in their team will talk about.
- present the first half of the affirmative case.

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1st negative must:

- accept or reject the definition. If you don't do this it is assumed that you
accept the definition.
- present the negative team line.
- outline briefly what each of the negative speakers will say.
- rebut a few of the main points of the first affirmative speaker.
- the 1st negative should spend about one quarter of their time rebutting.
- present the first half of the negative team's case.

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Speech
What is a speech?
Speeches are talks delivered in public on formal and informal
occasions.
There are many types of speeches such as 'welcome speech',
'thank you speech' and 'farewell speech'. Besides, there are
also speeches on topics of interest and social issues.
The PRESENT TENSE IS USUALLY USED when you write
out a speech.

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 Topics for speech writing:

Global warming
Problem of educated unemployed in India
Women empowerment
Terrorism

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Dialogue Writing
Dialogue means conversation between two. The
language used is of day to day conversation with an
informal tone.
Dos and don'ts for writing dialogue
Dos

Pay attention to each character's different speaking style.

Edit dialogue to trim off most of the fat. A lot of what people say is just
blah-blah-blah, but you don't want to bore your reader.
Show how the character speaks instead of telling it.

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Don'ts:

Don't get too colorful with the dialogue tags. "Hello," she shouted; "Hi there," he
cried; "How are you?" she queried," "Fine thanks," he shrilled"... too much of this
stuff gets distracting fast. Put your thesaurus away. The basic dialogue verbs "say,"
"tell," and "ask," have the advantage of fading in the background, letting the reader
focus on what your character is saying.
Don't feel obligated to add a tag to every bit of dialogue. If it's clear who's saying
what without them, then you can leave them off.
Don't let your reader get disoriented. Use dialogue tags when they're needed to
prevent confusion. There's nothing worse than stopping in the middle of an exciting
scene to retrace the dialogue and try to figure out who's saying what ("Okay, it's the
killer speaking here, so this must be the detective who's answering him, not his
sister...")

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A Dialogue between two friends discussing a football match.

Prabir-Hello! Samir, I didnt see you I the field. Where had you been?

Samir- I was watching the game from the western side. I hope you enjoy it, Prabir.

Prabir-Oh, yes I did. It was a keenly contested game. There was excitement all
through. Wasnt it?

Samir- Yes, youre right. Until the game was over it was difficult to forecast which
party would win. The last minute goal by our center-forward was quite unexpected.

Prabir- Yes, I too thought the game would end in a draw.

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Samir- their goalie had all along played wonderfully well. Its hardly possible to
save such a shot from near the goal.
Prabir- Our forwards were stranger.
Samir- Yes, but their defense also played well. Their centre-forward missed a nice
chance when their right winger passed the ball to him.
Prabir- It was a very critical moment for our team. Luckily, our stopper rushed to
the spot and kicked the ball away well before their centre-forward could get to it.
Samir- On the whole it was a clean game. There was no foul charge on either side.
Prabir- The referees decisions also were quite just. There was nothing to complain
against them.
Samir- Weve won the cup. Well have a holiday. Isnt it?
Prabir- We ought to.

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Description of
instuments,labs,incidents

etc.

Describe a thermometer

A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of solids, liquids, or gases. A

thermometer contains a liquid (usually mercury or an alcohol solution) in a
reservoir whose volume is linearly dependent on the temperature (as the
temperature increases, the volume increases). When the liquid is heated it expands
into a narrow tube that has been calibrated to indicate the temperature. Temperature
can be recorded in Celsius, Fahrenheit, or Kelvin, therefore it is important to note
which scale the thermometer is calibrated for.
A thermometer can use any of several methods to register temperature. These
include mercury; liquid-in-glass; electronic with digital display; infrared or
tympanic; and disposable dot matrix. A thermometer can be used in a clinical or
emergency setting or at home. Thermometers can record body temperatures in the
mouth (oral), armpit (axillary), eardrum (tympanic membrane), or anus (rectal).

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Section-C
Chapter 1
The Year 2050 by T.J. Gordon
T.J. Gordon tells about his future reflections in
1980. He presents his future reflections with
logic and objectivity.

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Important points:
Longer life span
Drawbacks of increased long life and
improved health
Food production
Energy picture
Technology waves
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Electronics
Genetics
Psychology
Impact of Space discoveries on international
Peace.

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Chapter-2
The Mushroom of Death by Amlendu
Bandyopadhyay.
The author wrote this article in 1984.He wants us to
know about the estimate of nuclear weapons today.
He draws a picture of the aftermath of a full scale
nuclear war.

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Important points:
Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Effect of an airburst of a nuclear war.
Existing nuclear Weapons
Effects of large scale exchange of weapons
Earths Climate

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Chapter 3
Human Environment by Indira Gandhi
This chapter is part of speech delivered by
Indira Gandhi on June 14, 1972 at the U.N.
Conference on Human Environment at
Sweden.
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Important points:
Causes of Pollution
King Ashokas concern for environment
Poverty and need ,greatest polluters
Reckless use of resources by rich countries
Narrow down the imparities between the
developed and developing nations

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Chapter 4
Experiment and Experience by W.R. Niblett
W.R. Niblett, the British educationist in this
essay brings out a distinction between
experiment and experience and suggests that
experiment also leads to experience. An
experimenter is an experiencer too

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Important points:
Twentieth century people have experimental
approach.
Characteristics of an experimenter.
Difference between experience and experiment
Experiences are unique.
Experiments lead to same result
Equal importance of both to attain complete
knowledge
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