Semiconductor Physics

Session A

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Introduction
Semiconductors
are
materials
whose
electronic
SeSeSeproperties are intermediate between te of Metals
and Insulators.
They have conductivities in the range of 10

-4

to 10

+4

S/m.

The interesting feature about semiconductors is that they

are bipolar and current is transported by two charge
carriers of opposite sign.
These intermediate properties are determined by
1.Crystal Structure bonding Characteristics.
2.Electronic Energy bands.

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Silicon and Germanium are elemental semiconductors and they have four
valence electrons which are distributed among the outermost S and p
orbital's.

These outer most S and p orbital's of Semiconductors involve in Sp3

hybridanisation.

These Sp3 orbital's form four covalent bonds of equal angular separation
leading to a tetrahedral arrangement of atoms in space results
tetrahedron shape, resulting crystal structure is known as Diamond cubic
crystal structure

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Types of Semiconductors
1.Intrinsic Seconductor
2.Extrinsic Semiconductor

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Intrinsic
Semiconductor
A Semiconductor which does not have any kind of
impurities, behaves as an Insulator at 0k and behaves as a
Conductor at higher temperature is known as Intrinsic
Semiconductor or Pure Semiconductors.
Germanium and Silicon (4th group elements) are the best
examples of intrinsic semiconductors and they possess
diamond cubic crystalline structure.

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Intrinsic
Semiconductor
Valence Cell

A Semiconductor which does

not have any kind of
impurities, behaves as an
Insulator at 0k and behaves
as a Conductor at higher
temperature is known as
Intrinsic Semiconductor or
Pure Semiconductors.
Germanium and Silicon (4th
group elements) are the
best examples of intrinsic
semiconductors and they
possess
diamond
cubic
crystalline structure.
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Covalent bonds
Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Carrier
Concentration in
Intrinsic
Semiconductor
When
a suitable form of Energy

is supplied to a
Semiconductor then electrons take transition from Valence
band to Conduction band.

Hence a free electron in Conduction band and

simultaneously free hole in Valence band is formed. This
phenomenon is known as Electron - Hole pair generation.

In Intrinsic Semiconductor the Number of Conduction

electrons will be equal to the Number of Vacant sites or
holes in the valence band.

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Conduction
band

E
Electron
energy

Ec

Ec
Ef
Ev

KE of
Electron
= E - Ec

Fermi energy level

KE of
Valence band Hole =
Ev - E
Distance
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Extrinsic
Semiconductors
The Extrinsic Semiconductors are those in which impurities
of large quantity are present. Usually, the impurities can be
either 3rd group elements or 5th group elements.
Based on the impurities present in the Extrinsic
Semiconductors, they are classified into two categories.
1. N-type semiconductors
2. P-type semiconductors

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N - type
Semiconductors
When any pentavalent element
such as Phosphorous,
Arsenic or Antimony is added
to
the
intrinsic
Semiconductor , four electrons
are
involved
in
covalent
bonding with four neighboring
pure Semiconductor atoms.
The fifth electron is weakly
bound to the parent atom. And
even for lesser thermal energy
it is released Leaving the
parent atom positively ionized.

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Si

Si

Si

Free
electron

Si

Impure atom
(Donor)

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N - type
Semiconductors
The Intrinsic Semiconductors doped with
impurities are called N-type Semiconductors.

pentavalent

The energy level of fifth electron is called donor level.

The donor level is close to the bottom of the conduction
band most of the donor level electrons are excited in to the
conduction band at room temperature and become the
Majority charge carriers.
Hence in N-type Semiconductors electrons are Majority
carriers and holes are Minority carriers.
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Conduction
band
E
c

E
Electron
energy

Ec
Donor levels

Ed

Eg

Ev
Valence
band
Distance
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Carrier
Concentration in
N-type
Semiconductor
Consider
N is the donor Concentration i.e., the number of
d

donor atoms per unit volume of the material and E d is the

donor energy level.

At very low temperatures all donor levels are filled with

electrons.
With increase of temperature more and more donor atoms
get ionized and the density of electrons in the conduction
band increases.

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Variation of Fermi
level with
temperature

To start with ,with increase of temperature Ef increases

slightly.
As the temperature is increased more and more donor
atoms are ionized.
Further increase in temperature results in generation of
Electron - hole pairs due to breading of covalent bonds and
the material tends to behave in intrinsic manner.
The Fermi level gradually moves towards the intrinsic Fermi
level Ei.
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P-type semiconductors

When a trivalent elements such as Al, Ga or

Indium have three electrons in their outer most
Co-Valent
orbits , added to the intrinsic semiconductor all
bonds
the three electrons of Indium are engaged in
covalent bonding with the three neighboring Si
atoms.
Si
Indium needs one more electron to complete its
bond. this electron maybe supplied by Silicon ,
there by creating a vacant electron site or hole
on the semiconductor atom.
Indium accepts one extra electron, the energy
level of this impurity atom is called acceptor
level and this acceptor level lies just above the Impure atom
(acceptor)
valence band.
These type of trivalent impurities are called
acceptor impurities and the semiconductors
doped the acceptor impurities are called P-type
semiconductors.
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Si

In

Hole

Si

Si

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Conduction band

Ec

Ec
E
Electron
energy

Acceptor levels

Ev

Eg
Ea

Valence band

temperature
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Direct band gap and

indirect band gap
semiconductors:
We known that the energy spectrum of an electron moving
in the presence of periodic potential field is divided into
allowed and forbidden zones.
In crystals the inter atomic distances and the internal
potential energy distribution vary with direction of the
crystal. Hence the E-k relationship and hence energy band
formation depends on the orientation of the electron wave
vector to the crystallographic axes.
In few crystals like gallium arsenide, the maximum of the
valence band occurs at the same value of k as the
minimum of the conduction band as shown in below. this is
called direct band gap semiconductor.

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Direct band gap and indirect band gap

semiconductors:
E

Conduction
band

Conduction
band

Eg
Eg

Valence band

Valence
band

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 In few semiconductors like silicon the maximum of the

valence band does not always occur at the same k value as
the minimum of the conduction band as shown in figure.
This we call indirect band gap semiconductor.
In direct band gap semiconductors the direction of motion
of an electron during a transition across the energy gap
remains unchanged.
Hence the efficiency of transition of charge carriers across
the band gap is more in direct band gap than in indirect
band gap semiconductors

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Forward Bias

Forward bias is the condition that allows current through a pn junction.

This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS. The resistor R limits the
current to a value that will not damage the pn structure.

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The Effect of Forward Bias on

the Depletion Region

As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive
ions is reduced. As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on
the other side of the pn junction, the number of negative ions is reduced.
This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes the
depletion region to narrow.

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Effect of the Barrier Potential

During Forward Bias
When forward bias is applied, the free electrons are provided with enough
energy to overcome the barrier potential and effectively climb" the energy
hill and cross the depletion region.
The energy that the electrons require in order to pass through the depletion
region is equal to the barrier potential energy.
In other words, the electrons give up an amount of energy equivalent to the
barrier potential when they cross the depletion region. This energy loss
results in a voltage drop across the pn junction

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Reverse Bias

The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very
short time after the reverse bias voltage is applied.
As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers
decreases.
the electric field between the positive and negative charges increases in
strength
a very small reverse current that can usually be neglected

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the width of the depletion zone will increase. This increases the voltage
barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers thus
allowing minimal electric current to cross the p-n junction.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reversebias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a
critical level, the p-n junction depletion zone breaks-down and current
begins to flow, usually by either the Zeneror avalanche breakdown
processes..

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Reverse current

The small number of free minority electrons in the p region are "pushed"
toward the pn junction by the negative bias voltage. When these electrons
reach the wide depletion region, they "fall down the energy hill" and
combine with the minority holes in the n region as valence electrons and
flow toward the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole current.
The minority electrons easily pass through the depletion region because
they require no additional energy

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Reverse Breakdown

At the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will drastically increase.

The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority electrons
so that as they speed through the p region, they collide with atoms with
enough energy to knock valence electrons out of orbit . The newly created
conduction electrons are also high in energy and repeat the process. If one
electron knocks only two others out of their valence orbit during its travel
through the h region, the numbers quickly multiply. As these high-energy
electrons go through the depletion region, they have enough energy to go
through the n region as conduction electrons. rather than combining with
holes.
The multiplication of conduction electrons just discussed is known as
avalanche and results in a very high reverse current that can damage the
pn structure because of excessive heat dissipation.

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CURRENT-VOLTAGE
CHARACTERISTIC OF A PN
JUNCTION

IV characteristics for forward bias

Point A corresponds to zero-bias
condition.
Point B corresponds to where the
forward voltage is less than the
barrier potential of 0.7 V.
Point C corresponds to where the
forward voltage approximately
equals the barrier potential and the
external bias voltage and forward
current have continued to increase.

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Terminal
Characteristics of
Junction Diodes:
The diode: a two terminal device having
the circuit symbol shown:
Polarity of voltage: V positive
Forward
Direction of current: I positive
Forward
Three regions:
1- Forward bias region: V > 0
2- Reverse bias region: -VZK <V < 0
3- Breakdown region: V < -VZK

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Amplifier

An amplifier is a device for increasing the powerof a signal by use of an

external energy source.
In an electronic amplifier the input "signal" is usually a voltage or a
current. Other types exist; a fluidic amplifier increases the power of signals
represented as flow of gas or liquid, for example. Amplifiers may be
classified in a variety of ways depending on their application, the
frequency range they cover, or the active devices used. Ideally an amplifier
increases the power of a signal without otherwise altering it; practical
amplifiers have finite distortion and noise which they invariably add to the
signal.
A device that converts signals from one type to another (for example,
a light signal in photons to a DC signal in amperes) is a transducer
a transformer or a sensor However, none of these amplify power

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Characteristics of Amplifier
The gainof an amplifier is the ratioof output to input power or amplitude, and is usually
measured in decibel
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of frequencies for which the amplifier
gives "satisfactory performance" Therefore bandwidth can be defined as the
difference between the lower and upper half power points. This is therefore also
known as the 3 dB bandwidth.
Efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how much of the power source is usefully applied to the
amplifier's output.
Noise
This is a measure of how much noise is introduced in the amplification process.
Noise is an undesirable but inevitable product of the electronic devices and
components; also, much noise results from intentional economies of manufacture
and design time. The metric for noise performance of a circuit is noise figureor
noise factor. Noise figure is a comparison between the output signal to noise ratio
and the thermal noise of the input signal.
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Stability
Stability is an issue in all amplifiers with feedback, whether that feedback is added
intentionally or results unintentionally. It is especially an issue when applied over
multiple amplifying stages

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Multistage Amplifiers

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Multistage Amplifier

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R-C Coupled Amplifier

: When a.c. signal is applied to the

base of the first transistor, it is
amplified and developed across the
out of the 1st stage. This amplified
voltage is applied to the base of next
stage through the coupling capacitor
Cc where it is further amplified and
reappears across the out put of the
second stage. Thus the successive
stages amplify the signal and the
overall gain is raised to the desired
level. Much higher gains can be
obtained by connecting a number of
amplifier stages in succession (one
after the other).

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. Resistance-capacitance (RC) coupling is most widely used to

connect the output of first stage to the input (base) of the second
stage and so on. It is the most popular type of coupling because it is
cheap and provides a constant amplification over a wide range of
frequencies. Fig. shows the circuit arrangement of a two stage RC
coupled CE mode transistor amplifier where resistor R is used as a
load and the capacitor C is used as coupling element between the
two stages of the amplifier.

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Frequency response curve

The curve representing the variation of
gain of an amplifier with frequency
isknown as frequency response curve.
It is shown in Fig The voltage gain of
theamplifier increases with the
frequency, f and attains a maximum
value. The maximumvalue of the gain
remains constant over a certain
frequency range and afterwards the
gainstarts decreasing with the
increase of the frequency. It may be
seen to be divided intothree regions.
1) Low frequency range ( <50 Hz ) 2)
Mid frequency range ( 50 Hz to
20KHz ) and 3) High frequency range
( > 20 kHz ).

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Negative Feedback
A negative feedback amplifier (or more
commonly simply a feedback amplifier) is an
amplifier which combines a fraction of the output
with the input so that a negative feedback opposes the
original signal. The applied negative feedback
improves performance (gain stability, linearity,
frequency response, step response and reduces
sensitivity to parameter variations due to
manufacturing or environment. Because of these
advantages, negative feedback is used in this way in
many amplifiers and control systems. A negative
feedback amplifier is a system of three elements (see
Figure 1): an amplifier with gain AOL, an
attenuating feedback network with a constant < 1
and a summing circuit acting as a subtractor (the
circle in the figure). The amplifier is the only
obligatory; the other elements may be omitted in
some cases. For example, in a voltage
(emitter, source, op-amp) follower the feedback
network and the summing circuit are not necessary .
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Gain reduction

Below, the voltage gain of the amplifier with feedback, the closed-loop gain Afb, is
derived in terms of the gain of the amplifier without feedback, the open-loop
gain AOL and the feedback factor , which governs how much of the output
signal is applied to the input. See Figure 1, top right. The open-loop gain AOL in
general may be a function of both frequency and voltage; the feedback parameter
is determined by the feedback network that is connected around the amplifier. For
an operational amplifier two resistors forming a voltage divider may be used for the
feedback network to set between 0 and 1. This network may be modified using
reactive elements like capacitors or inductors (a) give frequency-dependent closedloop gain as in equalization/tone-control circuits or (b) construct oscillators. The
gain of the amplifier with feedback is derived below in the case of a voltage
amplifier with voltage feedback.
Without feedback, the input voltage V'in is applied directly to the amplifier input.
The according output voltage is

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Suppose now that an attenuating feedback oop applies a fraction .Vout of the output to
one of the subtractor inputs so that it subtracts from the circuit input
voltage Vin applied to the other subtractor input. The result of subtraction applied to
the amplifier input is
Substituting for V'in in the first expression,

Rearranging\

Then the gain of the amplifier with feedback, called the closed-loop gain, Afb is
given by,

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If AOL >> 1, then Afb 1 / and the effective amplification (or closed-loop
gain) Afb is set by the feedback constant , and hence set by the feedback network,
usually a simple reproducible network, thus making linearizing and stabilizing the
amplification characteristics straightforward. Note also that if there are conditions
where AOL = 1, the amplifier has infinite amplification it has become an
oscillator, and the system is unstable. The stability characteristics of the gain
feedback product AOL are often displayed and investigated on a Nyquist plot (a
polar plot of the gain/phase shift as a parametric function of frequency). A simpler,
but less general technique, uses Bode plots
The combination L = AOL appears commonly in feedback analysis and is called
the loop gain. The combination ( 1 + AOL ) also appears commonly and is
variously named as the desensitivity factor or the improvement factor.

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Bandwidth extension
Figure: Gain vs. frequency for a single-pole amplifier
with and without feedback; corner frequencies are
labeled.Feedback can be used to extend the bandwidth of
an amplifier at the cost of lowering the amplifier
gain. Figure shows such a comparison. The figure is
understood as follows. Without feedback the socalled open-loop gain in this example has a single time
constant frequency response given by where fC is
the cutoffor corner frequency of the amplifier: in this
example fC = 104 Hz and the gain at zero frequency
A0 = 105 V/V. The figure shows the gain is flat out to
the corner frequency and then drops. When feedback is
present the so-called closed-loop gain, as shown in the
formula of the previous section, becomes.The last
expression shows the feedback amplifier still has a single
time constant behaviour, but the corner frequency is now
increased by the improvement factor ( 1 + A0 ), and the
gain at zero frequency has dropped by exactly the same
factor. This behavior is called the gain-bandwidth
trade-off in Figure ( 1 + A0 ) = 103, so Afb(0)= 105 /
103 = 100 V/V, and fC increases to 104 103 = 107 Hz.
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Feedback topologies
Voltage- voltage

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 Current voltage feedback

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 Voltage current feedback

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Current-current feedback

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Type of feedback
Positive--distorted output +input
Amplified (distorted output)
Negative ---input - Fraction of distorted output
Amplified (undistorted output)
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Basic Electronics
Section-B
Oscillators : Criteria for oscillations, analysis of LC, RC and Crystal
oscillators, Study of Wien Bridge Oscillators.
Operational Amplifiers : Op-amps, its characteristics and its applications.
Power Suppliers : Introduction and Working of Switched Mode Power.
Voltage Regulator, Introduction to Inverters and UPS.
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Oscillators
Oscillators convert dc to ac.
Oscillators utilize positive feedback.
An amplifier will oscillate if it has positive feedback
and has extra gain than loss in the feedback path.
Sinusoidal oscillators have positive feedback at only
on its own frequency.
A lead-lag network produces a phase shift of 0
degrees at only one frequency

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dc in
Vin

ac out

Oscillator

Vout

A
This amplifier has positive feedback.
It oscillates if A > B.

B
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Feedback
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Basic Linear Oscillator

Vs

+
+

Vf
Vo AV A(Vs V f )

Vo

A(f)
SelectiveNetwork
(f)

and

V f Vo

Vo
A

Vs 1 A

If Vs = 0, the only way that Vo can be nonzero

is that loop gain A=1 which implies that

| A | 1
A 0

(Barkhausen Criterion)

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Basic Oscillator Feedback Circuit

Without Feedback

With Feedback

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Oscillators feedback
Oscillators are circuits that produce an output waveform
without an external signal source. The key to oscillator
operation is positive feedback. A positive feedback
network produces a feedback voltage (Vf) that is in phase
with the input signal (Vin ) . The amplifier shown in the
figure produces a 180 voltage phase shift, and the
feedback network introduces another 180 voltage shift.
This results in a combined 360 voltage phase shift,
which is the same as a 0 shift.

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Tuned collector oscillator

circuit

The tuned circuit is connected to the collector consist

with capacitor C and transformer primary coil L, forms
the load impedance and determines the frequency of
oscillation.
R1, R2 and RE form the dc biasing circuit the transistor.

Capacitors C1 and CE are bypass capacitors for R2 and

RE

C1 provides ac ground for the transformer secondary.

The output voltage developed across coil L1. The

feedback voltage appears across the base-emitter
junction, as the junction point of resistors R1 and R2 is at
ac ground due to bypass capacitor C1

phase shift of 180 is provided by the transistor

amplifier, Another phase shift of 180 is provided by the
transformer. Thus a total phase shift of 360 appears
between the input and output voltages i.e. there is a
positive feedback between the input and output voltage

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Working of Tuned
Collector Oscillator
When Vcc is switched on, a transient current is caused in the tuned L-C circuit. It is due to
increase of collector current to its quiescent value. This transient current initiates normal
oscillations in the tuned circuit. These natural oscillations induce some voltage into L 1 by mutual
induction which causes corresponding variations in base current. These variations in base current
are amplified times and appear in the collector circuit. A part of this amplified energy is used to
meet the losses that occur in the tuned circuit and the rest is radiated out in the form of electromagnetic waves. The turn-ratio of L and L1 is determined by the total losses. Higher is the turnratio, lesser is the feedback voltage applied and vice-versa. The frequency of oscillation is the
resonant frequency of the tuned circuit.

1
where:
L is the Inductance in Henries
C is the Capacitance in Farads
r is the Output Frequency in Hertz

fR =

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LC

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Colpitts Oscillator

Capacitors C1, C2, and inductor L form a positive

feedback network
feedback signals from both ends of capacitor C2,
Feedback signal in phase with the input voltage
to meet the oscillation
LC resonant circuit Q value is high oscillation
frequency is approximately equal to

Among

high oscillation frequency more than 100MHz.

when the oscillation frequency is high C1, C2's
value is very small

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Clapp oscillator

The Clapp oscillator is simply a Colpitts oscillator

with an extra capacitor C3 in series with the coil.
The function of is to reduce the effects of junction
capacitance on operating frequency.
C1 is in parallel with the Miller input capacitance.

C2 is in parallel with the Miller output capacitance

C3 is always much lower in value than either C1 or

C2, so it becomes the dominant capacitor in any
frequency calculation.
C1 and C2 is to provide the phase shift needed for
regenerative feedback.
C3 has not replaced C1 and C2. It is simply there to
determine the operating frequency. Since C1 and C2
are eliminated from the frequency calculation,
junction capacitance has little or no effect on
operating frequency.

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Hartley oscillator

It is widely used as local oscillator in radio

receivers. phase-shift network consists of two
inductors L r and L2 and a capacitor C.
The output of the amplifier is applied across
inductor Lx and the voltage across inductor L2
forms the feedback voltage.
Coil L1 is inductively coupled to coil L2, the
combination functions as an auto-transformer.
However, because of direct connection, the
junction of L1 and L2 cannot be directly
grounded. Instead, another capacitor CL is used.
Considering the fact that there exists mutual
inductance between coils L1 and L2 because the
coils are wound on the same core, their net
effective inductance is increased by mutual
inductance M.

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 Total inductance LT = L1 + L2 + 2 M
Oscillation frequency is given by the expression

1
F =
2

LTC

Hartley oscillator can also be correctly used for generating RF signals. The
frequency can be easily varied by varying the inductances which can be done by
making the core movable. Another method of varying frequency is of varying
capacitance.
It is not suitable for low frequency work because at low frequency, the value of
inductance required becomes large.

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Working of Tuned
Collector Oscillator
When Vcc is switched on, a transient current is caused in the tuned L-C circuit. It is due to
increase of collector current to its quiescent value. This transient current initiates normal
oscillations in the tuned circuit. These natural oscillations induce some voltage into L 1 by mutual
induction which causes corresponding variations in base current. These variations in base current
are amplified times and appear in the collector circuit. A part of this amplified energy is used to
meet the losses that occur in the tuned circuit and the rest is radiated out in the form of electromagnetic waves. The turn-ratio of L and L1 is determined by the total losses. Higher is the turnratio, lesser is the feedback voltage applied and vice-versa. The frequency of oscillation is the
resonant frequency of the tuned circuit.

1
where:
L is the Inductance in Henries
C is the Capacitance in Farads
r is the Output Frequency in Hertz

fR =

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LC

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Colpitts Oscillator

Capacitors C1, C2, and inductor L form a positive

feedback network
feedback signals from both ends of capacitor C2,
Feedback signal in phase with the input voltage
to meet the oscillation
LC resonant circuit Q value is high oscillation
frequency is approximately equal to

Among

high oscillation frequency more than 100MHz.

when the oscillation frequency is high C1, C2's
value is very small

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Clapp oscillator

The Clapp oscillator is simply a Colpitts oscillator

with an extra capacitor C3 in series with the coil.
The function of is to reduce the effects of junction
capacitance on operating frequency.
C1 is in parallel with the Miller input capacitance.

C2 is in parallel with the Miller output capacitance

C3 is always much lower in value than either C1 or

C2, so it becomes the dominant capacitor in any
frequency calculation.
C1 and C2 is to provide the phase shift needed for
regenerative feedback.
C3 has not replaced C1 and C2. It is simply there to
determine the operating frequency. Since C1 and C2
are eliminated from the frequency calculation,
junction capacitance has little or no effect on
operating frequency.

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Hartley oscillator

It is widely used as local oscillator in radio

receivers. phase-shift network consists of two
inductors L r and L2 and a capacitor C.
The output of the amplifier is applied across
inductor Lx and the voltage across inductor L2
forms the feedback voltage.
Coil L1 is inductively coupled to coil L2, the
combination functions as an auto-transformer.
However, because of direct connection, the
junction of L1 and L2 cannot be directly
grounded. Instead, another capacitor CL is used.
Considering the fact that there exists mutual
inductance between coils L1 and L2 because the
coils are wound on the same core, their net
effective inductance is increased by mutual
inductance M.

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 Total inductance LT = L1 + L2 + 2 M
Oscillation frequency is given by the expression

1
F =
2

LTC

Hartley oscillator can also be correctly used for generating RF signals. The
frequency can be easily varied by varying the inductances which can be done by
making the core movable. Another method of varying frequency is of varying
capacitance.
It is not suitable for low frequency work because at low frequency, the value of
inductance required becomes large.

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Crystal Oscillator
A piezoelectric crystal. (a) Circuit symbol.
(b) Equivalent circuit.

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Crystal Oscillator

Crystal reactance versus frequency

(neglecting the small resistance r ).

A series resonance frequency at

s 1

1
2 CS L

LC s

A parallel resonance frequency at

p 1

Series frequency fS

L(

Cs C p
Cs C p

Parallel frequency fP

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CSCP

L
2

C
S
P

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+VCC
RFC

RB1

RB2

vout
C1
C2
RE

Xtal

CE
Replaces the
tank circuit
PDM ECE

74

Phase-shift oscillator
voltage divider R1-R2 provides dc emitter base bias,
RE and CE combination provides temperature stability
and prevent ac signal degeneration and collector resistor
RC controls the collector voltage. The oscillator output
voltage is capacitively coupled to the load by Cc.
The feedback signal is coupled through the feedback
resistor R in series with the amplifier stage input
resistance h^. The value of R should be such that when
added with amplifier stage input resistance hie, it is equal
to R i.e., R + hie = R.
This variation in base current is amplified in collector
circuit. The output of the amplifier is supplied to an R-C
feedback network.
The R-C network produces a phase shift of 180
between output and input voltages. CE amplifier
produces a phase reversal of the input signal, total phase
shift becomes 360 or 0 which is essential for
regeneration or for sustained oscillations

PDM ECE

75

Phase-shift oscillator
voltage divider R1-R2 provides dc emitter base bias,
RE and CE combination provides temperature stability
and prevent ac signal degeneration and collector resistor
RC controls the collector voltage. The oscillator output
voltage is capacitively coupled to the load by Cc.
The feedback signal is coupled through the feedback
resistor R in series with the amplifier stage input
resistance h^. The value of R should be such that when
added with amplifier stage input resistance hie, it is equal
to R i.e., R + hie = R.
This variation in base current is amplified in collector
circuit. The output of the amplifier is supplied to an R-C
feedback network.
The R-C network produces a phase shift of 180
between output and input voltages. CE amplifier
produces a phase reversal of the input signal, total phase
shift becomes 360 or 0 which is essential for
regeneration or for sustained oscillations

PDM ECE

76

If R1 = R2 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C3 = C, then
f osc

1
1

and v
29
2 RC 6
PDM ECE

77

Wien bridge oscillator

It is used in audio and sub-audio

frequency ranges (20 20 kHz).
This type of oscillator is simple in
design, compact in size, and
extremely stable in its frequency
output.
its output is relatively free from
distortion and its frequency can be
varied easily.
the maximum frequency output of
a typical Wien bridge oscillator is
only about 1 MHz.
It employs two transistors, each
producing a phase shift of 180,
and thus producing a total phaseshift of 360 or 0.

PDM ECE

78

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Frequency of oscillation

1
2 R1C1R2C2

1 if R1 R2 R

f
2RC C1 C2 C

Condition of oscillation

R3 R1 C2

R4 R2 C1

if R1 R2 R
R3

R4
C

C
1
2

PDM ECE

79

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Advantages
Provides a stable low distortion sinusoidal output over a wide range of
frequency.
The frequency range can be selected simply by using decade resistance boxes.
The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied by varying capacitances
C1 and C2 simultaneously.
The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
Disadvantages
The circuit needs two transistors and a large number of other components.
The maximum frequency output is limited because of amplitude and the
phase-shift characteristics of amplifier.

PDM ECE

80

The Operational
Amplifier
Operational Amplifier have a
Very high differential gain (typically 200,000)
Direct coupled
Negative feedback
High input impedance
Low output impedance
Provide voltage changes (amplitude and
polarity)
Used in oscillator, filter and instrumentation
Accumulate a very high gain by multiple
stages

The Op Amp Symbol

V-

in ve r tin g in p u t

o u tp u t

n o n in ve r tin g in p u t
V+

PDM ECE

81

The Operational Amplifier

Op Amp Pin-out
connections LM741

1. Gain--infinite
2. Input impedance--infinite
3. Output impedance--zero
4. Bandwidth--infinite
5. Voltage out--zero (when voltages into each
other are equal)
6. Current entering the amp at either
terminal--extremely small

PDM ECE

82

Ideal Vs Practical OpAmp

Ideal

Practical

Open Loop gain A

10

Bandwidth BW

10-100Hz

Input Impedance Zin

>1M

10-100

Output Impedance Zout

Output Voltage Vout

CMRR

Depends only
Depends slightly
on Vd = (V+V) on average input
Vc = (V++V)/2
Differential
Common-Mode
mode signal
signal

Vin

+ AVin

Ideal op-amp

Zout=0

Vin

Zin

Vout

Practical op-amp

Zout
~

Vout

AVin

10-100dB
PDM ECE

83

Inverting amplifier
An inverting amplifier inverts and scales the input
signal.
The op-amp gain is very large, the amplifier gain is
determined by two stable external resistors
(the feedback resistor Rf and the input resistor Rin )
and not by op-amp parameters which are highly
temperature dependent.
Hence, the amplifier output is related to the input as

So voltage gain of the amplifier is

where the negative sign is a convention indicating that

the output is negated.
PDM ECE

84

The Non-inverting
Op-Amp

The input voltage signal, (Vin) is applied directly to the non-inverting ( + )

input terminal which means that the output gain of the amplifier becomes
"Positive" . The result of this is that the output signal is "in-phase" with the
input signal.

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85

The overall closed-loop gain of a non-inverting amplifier will always be greater but
never less than one (unity), it is positive in nature and is determined by the ratio of
the values of Rf and R2. If the value of the feedback resistor Rf is zero, the gain of
the amplifier will be exactly equal to one (unity). If resistor R 2 is zero the gain will
approach infinity, but in practice it will be limited to the operational amplifiers openloop differential gain, (Ao).

PDM ECE

86

Differential amplifier
The circuit computes the difference of two voltages multiplied by some constant
the output voltage is:

The differential input impedance Z in is approximately

R1 + R 2
Under the condition that the R f /R1 = R g/R2, the
output expression becomes:

where

is the differential gain of the circuit.

If Rf /R1 = Rg/R2, as before, and Rf = R1, the differential

gain A = 1,
and the circuit is a differential follower with:
PDM ECE

87

Voltage follower
Op-amp

as a buffer amplifier to
eliminate loading effects
(connecting a device with a high
source impedance to a device
with a low input impedance).

V out = V in
Z in =
Reasonably, the differential
input impedance of the op-amp
itself, 1 M to 1 T)

PDM ECE

88

Summing amplifier
A summing amplifier sums several (weighted)
voltages:

When ,

and Rf independent

When

Output is inverted
Input impedance of the nth input is
(V_ is a virtual ground)
PDM ECE

89

Integrating amplifier

The insertion of a capacitor in the feedback path of an op-amp results in an output signal that is a time integral of the input signal. A circuit arrangement for a simple inverting integrator is given in

(where Vin and V out are functions of time, V

of the integrator at time t = 0.)
PDM ECE

initial

is the output voltage

90

Common Mode Rejection

Ratio (CMRR)
It is the ability of an op amp to reject the signal which
is present at its both inputs simultaneously i.e. the
common mode signal
CMRR = AOL / ACM, where ACM is common mode
voltage gain defined by Vout / VCM
Ideally CMRR is infinite
For IC 741 it is 90 dB

PDM ECE

91

Op-Amp differentiator

PDM ECE

92

ECE 101-F : Basic Electronics

Section- C
Section- C
Digital Electronics : Number system and conversions.
Boolean Algebra.
Truth tables of logic gates & NAND, NOR as universal gates.
Difference between combinational circuits and sequential circuits.
Introduction to flip-flops (S-R & J-K).
Electronics Instruments : Millimeter Digital & Analog
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).
Function/Signal Generator.
PDM ECE

93

How to add binary

How to add binary numbers
numbers
Consider adding two 1-bit binary numbers x and y

0+ 0 = 0
0+ 1 = 1
1+ 0 = 1
1+ 1 = 10

x
0
0
1
1

y
0
1
0
1

Carry Sum
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0

Carry is x AND y
Sum is x X OR y
The circuit to compute this is called a half-adder
PDM ECE

94

Logic Gates
Boolean functions are implemented in digital computer circuits called gates.
A gate is an electronic device that produces a result based on two or more input
values.
In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but digital designers think of
them as a single unit.
Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a particular purpose.
Vs is ground = 0 Volts
Vd high voltage for all the
things were doing, this is
+5V, but there are many
possibilities.
Vg gate voltage depending
on this value, the electrons
can or can not flow from
high to low voltage.

PDM ECE

95

OR Operation
Boolean expression for the OR operation:
x =A + B
The above expression is read as x equals A
OR B

PDM ECE

96

AND Operation
Boolean expression for the AND operation:
x =A B
The above expression is read as x equals A
AND B

PDM ECE

97

NOT Operation
The NOT operation is an unary operation, taking only one input
variable.
Boolean expression for the NOT operation: x = A
The above expression is read as x equals the inverse of A
Also known as inversion or complementation.
Can also be expressed as: A

PDM ECE

98

NOR Gate
Boolean expression for the NOR operation:
x = A+ B

PDM ECE

99

The Universal Property

of NAND and NOR Gates
NAND and NOR gates are universal
because they can used to produce any of
the other logic functions.

PDM ECE

100

The Universal Property of

NAND Gates
NAND Gate as an Inverter

PDM ECE

101

Two NAND Gates as an

AND Gate

PDM ECE

102

Three NAND Gates as an

OR Gate

PDM ECE

103

Four NAND Gates as NOR

Gate

PDM ECE

104

The Universal Property

of NOR Gates
NOR Gate as an Inverter

PDM ECE

105

Two NOR Gates as an OR

Gate

PDM ECE

106

Three NOR Gates as an

AND Gate

PDM ECE

107

Four NOR Gates as an

NAND Gate

PDM ECE

108

Circuits
Two general categories
In a combinational circuit, the input values explicitly
determine the output
In a sequential circuit, the output is a function of the
input values as well as the existing state of the circuit

As with gates, we can describe the operations

of entire circuits using three notations
Boolean expressions
logic diagrams
truth tables
06/17/15

PDM ECE

109

Sequential Logic

Definition of sequential logic. Sequential logic can have one or

more, inputs and one or more outputs. However, the outputs are a
function of both the present value of the inputs and also the
previous output values. Thus, sequential logic requires memory to
store these previous outputs values.
Inputs

Clock

.
.

Combinational
Logic Gates

.
.

Outputs

Memory Elements
(Flip-Flops)

PDM ECE

110

FLIP-FLOPS

S
R

Q
Q

Memory device capable of storing one

bit
Memory means circuit remains in one
state after condition that caused the
state is removed.
Two outputs designated Q and Q-Not
that are always opposite or
complimentary.
When referring to the state of a flip flop,
referring to the state of the Q output.

06/17/15

PDM ECE

111

CLOCKED R-S FLIPFLOP

Symbols:

Set

Clock
Reset

Truth Table:

Mode of operation
Clk
Hold
Reset
Set
Prohibited

+ pulse
+ pulse
+ pulse

Normal

CLK
R

Inputs
S R
0
0
1
1

FF

0
1
0
1

Complementary

Outputs
Q Q
no change
0 1
1 0
0 0

NOTE: Active-High inputs

PDM ECE

112

D Flip-flop
D flip-flop: single input D (data)
D=HIGH SET state
D=LOW RESET state

Q follows D at the clock edge.

Convert S-R flip-flop into a D flip-flop: add an inverter.
D
CLK

S
C
R

Q
Q'

CLK

Q(t+1)

1
0

1
0

Comments
Set
Reset

= clock transition LOW to HIGH

A positive edge-triggered D flipflop formed with an S-R flip-flop.

PDM ECE

113

Definition for the PR (preset) and

CLR (clear) Asynchronous input for a
D flip-flop.
Asynchronous inputs (Preset & Clear) are used to override the clock/data inputs and force the
outputs to a predefined state.

Q 1 & Q 0

The Preset (PR) input forces the output to:

The Clear (CLR) input forces the output to:

PR

Q 0 & Q 1

PRESE
T

CLR

CLK

CLEAR

CLOCK

DATA

Asynchronous Preset

Asynchronous Clear

ILLEGAL
CONDITION

PR
D

PDM ECE

CLK

CLR

114

J/K Flip-Flop: Excitation

Table
Schematic symbol and excitation table for the
J/K flip-flop.

Q
CLK

CLK

Q0

No Change

Clear

Set

Q0

Toggle

: Rising Edge of Clock

Q : Complement of Q
PDM ECE

115

Edge-Triggered Flipflops
Flip-flops: synchronous bistable devices
Output changes state at a specified point on a
triggering input called the clock.

Change state either at the positive edge (rising edge)

or at. the negative edge (falling edge) of the clock
signal
Clock signal
Positive edges

Negative edges
PDM ECE

116

 S-R, D and J-K edge-triggered flip-flops. Note the

> symbol at the clock input.
S
C
R

D
C

Q'

J
C
K

Q'

Q
Q'

Positive edge-triggered flip-flops

S
C
R

D
C

Q'

Q
Q'

J
C
K

Q
Q'

Negative edge-triggered flip-flops

PDM ECE

117

POS & NEG Edge

Triggered J/K
Positive Edge Trigger
J

Q
CLK
Q

CLK

Q0

1
Q0

: Rising Edge of Clock

Negative Edge Trigger

J

Q
CLK

CLK

Q0

Q0

: Rising Edge of Clock

PDM ECE

118

Flip-Flop Vs. Latch

The primary difference between a D flip-flop and D latch is
the EN/CLOCK input.
The flip-flops CLOCK input is edge sensitive, meaning the
flip-flops output changes on the edge (rising or falling) of the
CLOCK input.
The latchs EN input is level sensitive, meaning the latchs
output changes on the level (high or low) of the EN input.

PDM ECE

119

PDM ECE

120

Electronic Instruments

PDM ECE

121

INTRODUCTION
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a multipurpose display instrument used for
the observation, measurement , and analysis of waveforms by plotting amplitude
along y-axis and time along x-axis.

CRO is generally an x-y plotter; on a single screen it can display

different signals applied to different channels. It can measure amplitude, frequencies
and phase shift of various signals. Many physical quantities like temperature,
pressure
and strain can be converted into electrical signals by the use of transducers, and the
signals can be displayed on the CRO.

A moving luminous spot over the screen displays the signal.

CROs are used to study waveforms, and other time-varying phenomena from very
low to very high frequencies.

The central unit of the oscilloscope is the cathode-ray tube

(CRT), and the remaining part of the CRO consists of the circuitry required to
operate the cathode-ray tube.
PDM ECE

122

COMPONENTS OF THE CATHODERAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The CRO consists of the following:
(i) CRT
(ii) Vertical amplifier
(iii) Delay line
(iv) Horizontal amplifier
(v) Time-base generator
(vi) Triggering circuit
(vii) Power supply

PDM ECE

123

Electron Gun

PDM ECE

124

CATHODE-RAY
TUBE:

PDM ECE

125

Electron Gun:

In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted, converted into a
sharp beam and focused upon the fluorescent screen.
The electron beam consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control
grid, an accelerating electrode and a focusing anode. The electrodes are
connected to the base pins. The cathode emitting the electrons is
surrounded by a control grid with a fine hole at its centre. The accelerated
electron beam passes through the fine hole.
The negative voltage at the control grid controls the flow of electrons in
the electron beam, and consequently, the brightness of the spot on the CRO
screen is controlled.

PDM ECE

126

Deflection Systems:

Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is used in a general purpose

oscilloscope. The deflecting system consists of a pair of horizontal and
vertical deflecting plates.
Let us consider two parallel vertical deflecting plates P1 and P2. The beam
is focused at point O on the screen in the absence of a deflecting plate
voltage.
If a positive voltage is applied to plate P1 with respect to plate P2, the
negatively charged electrons are attracted towards the positive plate P1,
and these electrons will come to focus at point Y1 on the fluorescent
screen.

PDM ECE

127

Fluorescent Screen:
Phosphor is used as screen material on the inner surface of a CRT.
Phosphor absorbs the energy of the incident electrons. The spot of light is
produced on the screen where the electron beam hits.

The bombarding electrons striking the screen, release secondary

emission electrons. These electrons are collected or trapped by an aqueous
solution of graphite called Aquadag which is connected to the second
anode.

Collection of the secondary electrons is necessary to keep the

screen in a state of electrical equilibrium.

The type of phosphor used, determines the color of the light

spot. The brightest available phosphor isotope, P31, produces yellowgreen
light with relative luminance of 99.99%.

PDM ECE

128

Display waveform on the

screen
Figure shows a sine wave
applied to vertical deflecting
plates and a repetitive ramp or
saw-tooth
applied
to
the
horizontal plates.
The ramp
waveform at the horizontal plates
causes the electron beam to be
deflected horizontally across the
screen .If the waveforms are
perfectly synchronized then the
exact sine wave applied to the
vertical display appears on the
CRO display screen.

PDM ECE

129

Triangular waveform:
Similarly the display of the triangular waveform is as shown in Fig. .

PDM ECE

130

TIME-BASE
GENERATORS:

The CRO is used to display a waveform

that varies as a function of time. If the
wave form is to be accurately reproduced,
the beam should have a constant horizontal
velocity.
As the beam velocity is a function of the
deflecting voltage, the deflecting voltage
must increase linearly with time.
A voltage with such characteristics is
called a ramp voltage. If the voltage
decreases rapidly to zerowith the
waveform repeatedly produced, as shown
in Fig. we observe a pattern which is
generally called a saw-tooth waveform.
The time taken to return to its initial
value is known as flyback or return time.

PDM ECE

131

Vertical Amplifiers:

Vertical amplifiers determines the sensitivity and bandwidth of an

oscilloscope. Sensitivity, which is expressed in terms of V/cm of vertical
deflection at the mid-band frequency. The gain of the vertical amplifier
determines the smallest signal that the oscilloscope can satisfactorily measure
by reproducing it on the CRT screen.
The sensitivity of an oscilloscope is directly proportional to the gain of the
vertical amplifier. So, as the gain increases the sensitivity also increases.
The vertical sensitivity measures how much the electron beam will be
deflected for a specified input signal. The CRT screen is covered with a
plastic grid pattern called a graticule.
The spacing between the grids lines is typically 10 mm. Vertical sensitivity is
generally expressed in volts per division.The vertical sensitivity of an
oscilloscope measures the smallest deflection factor that can be selected with
the rotary switch.
PDM ECE

132

TYPES OF THE CATHODERAY OSCILLOSCOPES:

1. Analog CRO: In an analog CRO, the amplitude, phase and frequency are
measured from the displayed waveform, through direct manual reading.
2. Digital CRO: A digital CRO offers digital read-out of signal information, i.e., the
time, voltage or frequency along with signal display. It consists of an electronic
counter along with the main body of the CRO.
3. Storage CRO: A storage CRO retains the display up to a substantial amount of
time after the first trace has appeared on the screen. The storage CRO is also useful
for the display of waveforms of low-frequency signals.
4. Dual-Beam CRO: In the dual-beam CRO two electron beams fall on a single CRT.
The dual-gun CRT generates two different beams.
These two beams
produce two spots of light on the CRT screen which make the simultaneous
observation of two different signal waveforms possible. The comparison of input
and its corresponding output becomes easier using the dual-beam CRO.
PDM ECE

133

SWEEP FREQUENCY
GENERATOR:

A sweep frequency generator is a signal generator which can automatically vary its
frequency smoothly and continuously over an entire frequency range. Figure 14-15
shows the basic block diagram of a sweep frequency generator.
The sweep frequency generator has the ramp generator and the voltagetuned oscillator as its basic components

PDM ECE

134

SWEEP FREQUENCY
GENERATOR

A sweep frequency generator is a

signal generator which can
automatically vary its frequency
smoothly and continuously over an
entire frequency range. Figure 14-15
shows the basic block diagram of a
sweep frequency generator.
The sweep frequency
generator has the ramp generator and
the voltage-tuned oscillator as its
basic components.

PDM ECE

135

Applications of the Sweep

Frequency Generator:

PDM ECE

136

FUNCTION
GENERATOR:

The basic components of a

function generator are:
(i) Integrator
(ii) Schmitt trigger circuit
(iii) Sine wave converter
(iv) Attenuator

PDM ECE

137

Block Diagram of
Function Generator
Voltage
Controlled
Oscillator

Level Detector

Sine Shaping Circuit

Amplifier
Stage

PDM ECE

138

SINE WAVE
GENERATOR:
A sine wave is produced by converting a triangular wave,
applying proper circuits. The triangular wave is produced by
employing an integrator and a Schmitt trigger circuit.
This triangular wave is then converted to a sine
wave using the diode loading circuit ,as shown in Fig. 14-19.
Resistors R1 and R2 behave as the voltage divider. When
VR2 exceeds V1, the diode D1 becomes forward-biased.
There is more attenuation of the output voltage
levels above V1 than levels below V1. With the presence of
the diode D1 and resistor R3 in the circuit, the output voltage
rises less steeply.
The output voltage falls below V1 and the
diode stops conducting, as it is in reverse-bias. The circuit
behaves as a simple voltage-divider circuit. This is also true
for the negative half-cycle of the input Vi . If R3 is carefully
chosen to be the same as R4 , the negative and the positive
cycles of the output voltage will be the same. The output is
an approximate sine wave.
PDM ECE

139

SINE WAVE
GENERATOR:
The circuit is adjusted by comparing a 1 kHz
sine wave and the output of the triangular/sine
wave converter on a dual-track CRO. R1, R2,
R3 and the peak amplitude of Ei are adjusted in
sequence for the best sinusoidal shape.

PDM ECE

140

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF SINE WAVE

GENERATOR:

PDM ECE

141

Two Types of Multimeters

DMM
(digital

VOM
(analog

PDM ECE

142

Types of Meters
Analog meter:
Uses a moving pointer and a printed scale to indicate values of
voltage, current, or resistance.
Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM):
Allows all three kinds of measurements on a single scale or
readout.
Digital multimeter:
Uses a numerical readout to indicate the measured value of voltage,
current or resistance.

PDM ECE

143

Moving-Coil Meter
Direct Current Meters
Direct current in a moving-coil meter deflects the pointer in proportion
to the amount of current.
A current meter must be connected in series with the part of the circuit
where the current is to be measured.
A dc current meter must be connected with the correct polarity.

PDM ECE

144

Analog instruments use a moving coil meter movement

PDM ECE

145

Voltmeters
A voltmeter is connected across two points to measure their difference
in potential.
A voltmeter uses a high-resistance multiplier in series with the meter
movement.
A dc voltmeter must be connected with the correct polarity.

A multiplier resistor is a large resistance in series with a moving-coil

meter movement which allows the meter to measure voltages in a circuit.

PDM ECE

146

A multiplier resistor is a large resistance in series with a moving-coil

meter movement which allows the meter to measure voltages in a circuit

PDM ECE

147

Ohms-per-Volt Rating
Analog voltmeters are rated in terms of the ohms of resistance required
for 1 V of deflection.
This value is called the ohms-per-volt rating, or the sensitivity of the
voltmeter.
The ohms-per-volt rating is the same for all ranges. It is determined by
the full-scale current IM of the meter movement.
The voltmeter resistance RV can be calculated by multiplying the ohmsper-volt rating and the full-scale voltage of each range.

PDM ECE

148

Ohmmeters
An ohmmeter consists of an internal battery in series with the meter
movement, and a current limiting resistance.
Power in the circuit being tested is shut off.
Current from the internal battery flows through the resistance being
measured, producing a deflection that is:
Proportional to the current flow, and
Displayed on a back-off scale, with ohm values increasing to the
left as the current backs off from full-scale deflection.

PDM ECE

149

How meter movement M can be used as an ohmmeter with a 1.5-V battery.

(a) Equivalent closed circuit with R1 and the battery when ohmmeter leads
are short-circuited for zero ohms of external R. (b) Internal ohmmeter circuit
with test leads open, ready to measure an external resistance

PDM ECE

150

Multimeters

Multimeters are also called multitesters.

Multimeters are used to measure voltage, current, or resistance.
Main types of multimeters are:
Volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM)
Digital multimeter (DMM)

PDM ECE

151

Multimeters

Fig. : Analog VOM that combines a

function selector and range switch.

Fig Portable digital multimeter

(DMM).
PDM ECE

152

Digital Multimeters
(DMMs)

The digital multimeter has become a very popular test instrument.

The digital value of the measurement is displayed automatically with
decimal point, polarity, and the unit for V, A, or .

PDM ECE

153

Digital multimeters

Digital multimeters are

generally
easier to use.

They eliminate the human error

that often occurs in reading
different scales on an analog
meter with a pointer.

PDM ECE

154

SWEEP FREQUENCY
GENERATOR

A sweep frequency generator is a

signal generator which can
automatically vary its frequency
smoothly and continuously over an
entire frequency range. Figure 14-15
shows the basic block diagram of a
sweep frequency generator.
The sweep frequency
generator has the ramp generator and
the voltage-tuned oscillator as its
basic components.

PDM ECE

155

SEVEN SEGMENT
DISPLAY

Often used to display BCD numbers (1 through 9)

and a few alphabets
A group of eight LEDs physically mounted in the
shape of the number eight plus a decimal point as
shown (a)
Each LED is called a segment and labeled as a
through g.

PDM ECE

156

TYPES:
Two types of seven-segment
LEDs
Common anode
Common cathode

decimal point
PDM ECE

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COMMON ANODE

In a common anode sevensegment LED

All anodes are connected
together to a power supply and
cathodes are connected to data
lines

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Logic 0 turns on a segment.

Example: To display digit 1, all
segments except b and c should
be off.
Byte 11111001 = F9H will display
digit 1.
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COMMON CATHODE

In a common cathode sevensegment LED

All cathodes are connected
together to ground and the
anodes are connected to data
lines

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Logic 1 turns on a segment.

Example To display digit 1, all
segments except b and c should
be off.
Byte 00000110 = 06H will
display digit 1.

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LED 7-SEGMENT DISPLAY

DRIVER

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Seven-Segment Chips

ALPHA/NUMERIC
C/A DISPLAY
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FOURTEEN SEGMENT
DISPLAY

A fourteen-segment display (sometimes referred to as a starburst

display or a "Union Jack" display) is a type of display based on
14 segments that can be turned on or off to produce letters and numerals.
It is an expansion of the more common seven-segment display, having an
additional four diagonal and two vertical segments with the middle
horizontal segment broken in half.
A seven-segment display suffices for numerals and certain letters, but
unambiguously rendering the ISO basic Latin alphabet requires more
detail. A slight variation is the sixteen-segment display which allows
additional legibility in displaying letters or other symbols.

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Fourteen-segment gas-plasma displays were used in pinball machines from

1986 through 1991 with an additional comma and period part making for a
total of 16 segments.
Fourteen and sixteen-segment displays were used to
produce alphanumeric characters on calculators and other embedded
systems. Applications today include displays fitted to telephone Caller ID
units, gymnasium equipment, VCRs, car stereos, microwave ovens, slot
machines, and DVD players.
Such displays were very common on pinball machines for displaying the
score and other information, before the widespread use of dot-matrix
display panels.

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LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

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A light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a PN junction

opto-semiconductor that emits a monochromatic (single color) light
when operated in a forward biased direction.
LEDs convert electrical energy into light energy. They are
frequently used as "pilot" lights in electronic appliances to indicate
whether the circuit is closed or not.

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About LEDs
The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the
semi-conductor chip located in the center of the bulb as shown at the
right. The chip has two regions separated by a junction. The p region is
dominated by positive electric charges, and the n region is dominated by
negative electric charges. The junction acts as a barrier to the flow of
electrons between the p and the n regions. Only when sufficient voltage is
applied to the semi-conductor chip, can the current flow, and the electrons
cross the junction into the p region.

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How Does A LED Work?

When sufficient voltage is applied to the

chip across the leads of the LED, electrons can move
easily in only one direction across the junction
between the p and n regions.

In the p region there are many more positive

than negative charges.

When a voltage is applied and the current

starts to flow, electrons in the n region have sufficient
energy to move across the junction into the p region.
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How Does A LED

Work?
Each time an electron recombines with
a positive charge, electric potential energy is
converted into electromagnetic energy.

For each recombination of a negative

and a positive charge, a quantum of
electromagnetic energy is emitted in the form of
a photon of light with a frequency characteristic
of the semi-conductor material (usually a
combination of the chemical elements gallium,
arsenicand
phosphorus)..
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How Much Energy Does an

LED Emit?

The energy (E) of the light emitted by an LED is related to the electric
charge (q) of an electron and the voltage (V) required to light the LED by the
expression: E = qV Joules.

This expression simply says that the voltage is proportional to the

electric energy, and is a general statement which applies to any circuit, as
well as to LED's. The constant q is the electric charge of a single electron,
-1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb.

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Finding the Energy from

the Voltage
Suppose you measured the voltage across the leads of an LED,
and you wished to find the corresponding energy required to light the LED.
Let us say that you have a red LED, and the voltage measured between the
leads of is 1.71 Volts. So the Energy required to light the LED is

E = qV or E = -1.6 x 10-19 (1.71) Joule,

since a Coulomb-Volt is a Joule. Multiplication of these numbers then gives

E = 2.74 x 10-19 Joule.

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Applications

Sensor Applications
Mobile Applications
Sign Applications
Automative Uses
LED Signals
Illuminations
Indicators

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Sensor Applications

Medical Instrumentation
Bar Code Readers
Color & Money Sensors
Encoders
Optical Switches
Fiber Optic Communication

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Mobile Applications

Mobile Phone
PDA's
Digital Cameras
Lap Tops
General Backlighting

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Sign Applications

Full Color Video

Monochrome Message Boards
Traffic/VMS
Transportation - Passenger Information

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Automative Applications

Interior Lighting - Instrument Panels & Switches, Courtesy Lighting

Exterior Lighting - CHMSL, Rear Stop/Turn/Tail
Truck/Bus Lighting - Retrofits, New Turn/Tail/Marker Lights

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Signal Appications

Traffic
Rail
Aviation
Tower Lights
Runway Lights
Emergency/Police Vehicle Lighting

LEDs offer enormous benefits over traditional incandescent lamps

including:

Energy savings (up to 85% less power than incandescent)

Reduction in maintenance costs
Increased visibility in daylight and adverse weather conditions
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LIQUID CRYSTAL
CELLS
Liquid crystal material is a liquid that exhibits some of the properties of
solid .the molecules in ordinary liquids normally have random orientations.
In liquid crystals the molecules are oriented in a definite crystal pattern.

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 Used for numeric and alpha numeric character in dot matrix and
segmental displays. popular liquid crystal structure is Nematic
Crystal (NLC).The liquid is normally transparent but is subjected
to a strong electric field disruption of the well ordered crystal
structure takes place causing the liquid to polarize and turn
opaque. the removal of the applied electric field allows the crystal
structure to regain its original form and the material becomes
transparent.

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TYPES
Dynamic Scattering type
Field effect type

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Dynamic Scattering
Types

The display consists of two glass plates each coated with tin oxide (SnO2)
on the inside with transparent electrodes separated by a liquid crystal layer
5 to 50 micrometer thick. The oxide coating on the front sheet is etched to
produce a single or multi segment pattern of characters with each segment
properly insulated from each other . a weak electric field applied to a liquid
crystal tends to align molecules in the direction of the field.

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Field Effect Types

Two thin polarising optical filters are placed at the inside of each glass
sheet. The LCD material is of twisted nematic type which twists the light
passing through the cell when the latter is not energized. This allows light
to pass through the optical filters and the cell appears bright. When the cell
is energized no twisiting of light takes place and the cell appears dull.

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Liquid crystal cells are

two types

Transmittive type cell, both glass sheets are transparent so that light from a
rear source is scattered in the forward direction when the cell is activated.

The Reflective type cell has a reflecting surface on one side of the glass
sheet .The incident light on the front surface of the cell is dynamically
scattered by an activated cell.

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Advantage

The voltage required are small

They have a low power consumption
They are economical.

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Advantage

The voltage required are small

They have a low power consumption
They are economical.

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Disadvantage

LCD are very slow devices. The turn On and Off times are quite large .yhe
turn on time is typically of the order few ms while the turn off is 10ms.
When used on ac their life span is quite small.
Occupy large area.

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Thank You

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