PRINCIPLES OF

INSTRUCTED SLA
Rod Ellis (2008) - Center of Applied
Linguistics - University of Auckland

Principle 1: Instruction needs to ensure that

learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic
expressions and a rule-based competence.
Formulaic Expressions vs Rule-based competence.
There is a wide acceptance of the importance of formulaic expressions and they serve
as a basis for the later development of a rule-based competence . Learners often
internalize rote-learned material as chunks and then break them down for analysis later.
Learners need to develop knowledge of the rules that govern how language is used
grammatically and appropriately.
A complete language curriculum needs to cater to the development of both formulaic
expressions and rule-based knowledge.
Blanco - Branderiz - Rojas C.

EXAMPLE:
Setting: Restaurant
ROLE PLAY
Ordering from the menu:
I would like a cup of coffee.
I would love a piece of cake.
As a chunk trigger and then they can change the verb, pronouns and the items from the
menu.
I hate tea, but I would like some coffee.
What would you like to order?
I would like to order an orange juice and a sandwich.

Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that

learners focus predominantly on meaning.
HOW?
Creating contexts to trigger real communication.
Using a task-based approach in order to:
Select a series of communicative tasks to create communicative
learning
opportunities.
Both, teacher and students function as
communicators.
The second language as a
TOOL of communication.
Reasons to focus on meaning:
It eases language acquisition.
It engages students and helps to develop fluency.

Activity:
Focus on meaning!
In order to foster genuine communication and fluency, we can propose the
class to engage in a task with a game-like structure. Imagine st. are working on
food and healthy habits. We can encourage them to work on a healthy menu for a
school's caffetteria, and find a good name for it aswell.
To start with the activity, as a class, we can brainstorm a list of things that we
like to eat and of the type of food that is always sold at the schools kiosk or
caffetteria and discuss if they are healthy or not. Then, in small groups, students
can decide a menu and a name for a healthy shop/space/place like that at school.
Finally, each group can tell, in turns, to the rest of the class the resulting menu
and the new name for the place, and maybe other details they would like to add!
(Jorgelina y Victoria)

3 Principle: Instruction
needs to ensure that
learners also focus on
form
.(Palermo-Godoy)

The need to focus on grammar is an accepted principle in

SLA, the role of the teacher is key for designing lessons
attending to practice a specific form. The teacher can
work through:
*inductive grammar lessons: guiding sts to notice preselected grammar forms in the input.
* deductive grammar lessons: sts discover the rule in
raising awareness activities.
*tasks and opportunities to practice and plan, focusing
primarily on meaning
* Intensive Instruction and Extensive Instruction

Activity
The teacher presents a text to work on. After
skimming the text in a first reading, students
have to pay attention to a new tense(Past
Continuous). The teacher encourages them
to look for differences in: the form, the
meaning and the use of the tense.(inductive
approach)

Principle 4: Instruction needs to focus on

developing implicit knowledge of the second
language while not neglecting explicit knowledge
Implicit knowledge is procedural, is held unconsciously, and can be verbalized only if it is

made explicit. It is accessed rapidly and easily and thus is available for use in rapid, fluent
communication. Given that implicit knowledge underlies the ability to communicate fluently
and confidently in a second language, this type of knowledge should be the ultimate goal
of any instructional program.
Explicit knowledge is conscious and declarative and can be verbalized. It is typically
accessed through controlled processing when learners experience some kind of linguistic
difficulty in the use of the second language. Explicit knowledge may assist language
development by facilitating the development of implicit knowledge.
Explicit knowledge can become implicit knowledge providing learners have the opportunity
for plentiful communicative practice.
The weak interface position ( which addresses whether explicit knowledge plays a role in
second language acquisition. Ellis, 1993) claims that explicit knowledge makes it more
likely that learners will attend to the structure in the input, which facilitates the processes
involved in acquiring implicit knowledge.
(Barsotelli,

Principle #4- Activity

The non-interface position leads to a zero grammar approach: that is, one that prioritizes meaningcentered approaches such as task-based teaching.
For example: Creating a brochure about Mar del Plata. During this task students will be in groups
engaged in researching and discussing about touristic places in Mar del Plata, designing their
brochures and finally exposing them in class.
The interface position supports PPPthe idea that a grammatical structure should be first presented
explicitly and then practiced until it is fully proceduralized (i.e., automatized).
For example: Presenting and teaching the Present Simple, Practicing the form in fill in the blanks
exercises , Producing the form in freer forms as students writing their own routines
The weak interface position has been used to provide a basis for consciousness-raising tasks.
These are grammar discovery tasks that provide learners with data that they use to work out the
grammar rule for themselves.
For example: Presenting students various texts, during an extended period of time, which are written
in the Present Simple Tense(third person singular). Designing activities so that students focus on form
like, highlighting all the verbs and asking what most of them have in common (-s/ -es) . Students work
out the grammar rule.

Principle 6: Successful Instructive language learning

requires extensive second language Input.
1. Importance of input for developing the implicit knowledge that is needed to
become an effective communicator in the second language.
2. Learners need exposure to the target language through motivation and
comprehensible input for successful acquisition.
How can teachers ensure their students have access to sufficient input?
Inside the classroom:Teachers need to maximize the use of the second
language (the second language as a medium as well as the object of
instruction)
Outside the classroom: Teachers need to create opportunities for students to
obtain input (reading programs according to the level of the student)
(Arocha-Bombina-Bucci- Carrasco)

ACTIVITY:
Inside the classroom: The teacher provides a song related to an
interesting topic for students to work on. Students read and listen to the
song. They get new vocabulary (words and phrases) and check the
meaning and pronunciation. Different activities can be developed
throughout the song, such as fill in the gaps, choose the correct option,
order the paragraphs and so on. The song can also be related to the
tense (for example) students are learning at that moment.
Outside the classroom: The teacher proposes students to follow a sitcom
(chosen by learners and accepted by teachers) at home during the year
and to comment it in class.
(Arocha- Bombina- Bucci- Carrasco)

Principle 7:Successful instructed language

learning also requires opportunities for output.
Krashen----> acquisition is entirely dependent on comprehensible
input.
Researchers----> learner output also plays an important part in
second language acquisition.
It is important to:
Create opportunities for output, what Swain called pushed output
(output where the learner expresses messages clearly and
explicitly).
Incorporate communicative tasks.
Acknowledge that controlled practice results in limited output.
(Tabares-Vallejos)

Principle 7: the role of output in second language

acquisition
Output:
serves to generate better input through the feedback elicited by
learners
obliges learners to pay attention to grammar
allows learners to test hypotheses about the language
provides the learner, opportunities to develop discourse skills and
auto-input.
helps learners, to automatize existing knowledge and to develop a
personal voice by steering conversation to topics to which they are
interested in contributing.

ACTIVITY (principle 7)
Students have already been working with daily activities,
the present simple and adverbs of frequency.
Teacher asks students to choose their idol (it could be a
singer, an actor, a youtuber, whoever they want). Then they
will have to imagine how it would be a day in their lives and
write his or her routine having into account all the topics
they have learned (the ones previously mentioned). After
finishing the activity, we will share the routines with the rest
of the class.

Principle 8: The opportunity to

interact in the second language is
essential
to
develop
L2
proficiency
Oral Interaction:
Helps learners automatize what they already
know
Serves as a form of mediation
Engages learners in negotiating meaning
Gives learners the opportunity to construct

To create an acquisitionrich classroom, teachers

need to:
Create context for language
Provide opportunities for learners
express their own personal
meanings
Help students to participate in
activities that are beyond their

Suggested
activity:
Context: Students go on a study trip to
New Orleans, and one night, they go out
for dinner. They have to ask for
traditional dishes, and negotiate meaning
with the waitress, to understand what the
dishes are made of. Finally they order the
food.
Vernica A., Paula R., Nancy I., Paola S. Agustina P., y Sara H.

Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of

individual differences in learners.
Teachers must take into account particular aptitudes among the
students and how to motivate them effectively.
Adopt a flexible teaching approach involving a variety of
learning activities.
Use simple material.
Increase the range of learning strategies: mime, gestures.
Enhance their intrinsic motivation.
Ensure that students stay motivated.
Melisa y Viviana

Principle # 10: In assessing learners second language proficiency, it

is important to examine free as well as controlled production.
Norris and Ortega (2000) distinguished four types of measurement:
Metalinguistic judgement (e.g. a grammaticality judgement test)
Selected response (e.g., multiple choice)
Constrained constructed response (e.g., gap-filling exercises)
Free constructed response (e.g., a communicative task)
They found that the effect of instruction was greatest in the case of selected response and
constrained constructed response, and least in free constructed response. Yet, arguably, free
constructed response constitutes the best measure of learners second language proficiency, as
this correspond most closely to the kind of language use found outside the classroom.
Free constructed responses are best elicited by means of tasks. Task-based performance can be
assessed either by means of a direct assessment of task outcomes or by external ratings.
Direct assessment: tasks that have a single correct outcome (e.g. spot-the-difference task)
External ratings: assessment of different qualities of task performance such as accuracy,
complexity and fluency.

Principle # 10: Activities

Warm up: Teacher presents a poster with a scene of a city park. People in the poster are
performing different activities: running, resting, reading, having a pic-nic, walking,
playing football, etc. Some people are not paying attention to some signs (prohibitions)
Stage 1: Students describe the scene using present continuous tense.
They are expected to spot the things that are incorrect (e.g. throwing rubbish, dogs
running without a lead, etc)
At this stage, the teacher monitors the free speaking production (external ratings:
accuracy, complexity and fluency)
Stage 2: Students are asked to produce notes using imperatives (dont play football in
public areas, etc.)
At this second stage, the teacher corrects the statements (direct assessment: specified
senteces using the target structure)
Stage 3: Students produce a new poster using the notes.