Formation and Its Drainage

Lecture 2
 Elements of Railway Track


üRoadbed
Ballast
Sleeper
Fastenings
Rails

 What is a roadbed?

A railway roadbed is a regular, prepared subgrade on

which are laid the ballast section, ties and rails.

 Purpose and Basic functions of roadbed

Weights of tracks + ballast + train loadings are

supported as uniformly as possible and transmitted
with diminishing uniform pressures to the
supporting natural ground beneath.
Drainage is facilitated.
Smooth, regular surface is provided on which the
ballast section and track structure can be laid.

 Design of Roadbed section

Three important factors have to be considered:

üWidth of subgrade (or base of cut)
üDepth of cut or fill
üSide slopes of the sut or fill

 Width of roadbed

 It is determined in part by width of ballast section which depends on several variables

like subgrade and ballast material, weather, size of ties, weight of rail, volume and
speed of traffic and axle loadings.
 Design of ballast section & width of subgrade is based on expected traffic at least 10 to 15
years in future.
 The cost of extra width at the time of construction should be balanced against estimated
future cost of roadbed widening.
 Separate standards of roadbed & ballast are used for mainline and branch line.
 Road bed shoulders should extent a minimum of 18” beyond the toe of ballast slope to
give adequate support to ballast section.
 More widening of subgrade is required where soils are susceptible to wind / water
erosion.
 In case of settlement, final top subgrade width must be maintained. Otherwise with
successive ballast layers (also called as lifts) to hold the established gradient, top of fill
becomes too narrow for it’s height and for the width of ballast section.
 The most important factor affecting width of cuts is side ditches.
 Base width of 3’ – 6’ with side slopes of 1:1 are standards in common use for width of
cuts.
 If gradient is steep, shoulder must be protected against erosion.

 Depth of Fill (Embankment)

Allowance for settlement & erosion must be given.

High water levels must be considered.

 Side Slopes

Depends primarily upon shearing strength & angle of

repose of the materials forming the slope.
A slope of 1 : 1 is commonly used in railway design for
both cuts and fills and gives reasonable stability for most
materials.
Sands / Clays may require 2 : 1 or even 3 : 1
Solid rock cuts may stand on : 1 or : 1
A final decision on rate of slope must depend on type of
soil used rather than on rule of thumb.
A slope of 2 : 1 is approximately one third longer than 1 : 1
and receives, approx. one third more rainfall. Therefore
effects of erosion must be considered while deciding
whether to make slope wider or flatter.

 Slope Protection

 Paving:
ü To pave means to make hard, durable and permanent. It gives pleasing appearance.
There are options of stone paving, asphalt paving, etc. Decision must be made
according to budget.
 Rip Rap:
ü Loose placement of stones along slope with toe wall.
ü Protects saturated fills along rivers and lakes.
ü Grouting between stones could be used for greater stability.
 Planting:
ü Choice of plantings is determined by conditions of local soil, climate and rainfall.
ü Native plants are likely to give best results.
 Cinder Blankets:
ü Used for clay embankments.
 Retaining Walls:
ü Provided when angle of slope is considerably greater than angle of repose of slope
materials.

 Roadbed Materials

Functions of soils
Soils have a dual function for roadbed. 1) Soils constitute
the foundation on which railways are constructed. 2)
Soils are also the materials of which the roadbed is
constructed.
An engineer can’t always select soils entirely by his own
choice because a railway track is hundreds of miles long
and a variety of soils are encountered in the field. Proper
knowledge of soils & their functions can help creating a
stable and purpose fulfilling track. This knowledge is
primarily based on classification of soils and their
properties.

 Testing of Soils for Selection

 Classification by Grain Size

 Gravel
 Coarser than 2 mm
 Coarse Sand
 2 – 0.6
 Medium Sand
 0.6 – 0.2
 Fine Sand
 0.2 – 0.06
 Silt
 0.06 – 0.002
 Clay
 0.002mm and finer

 BrainStorming

What soils can be used for railway formation?

How can you drain Water away from railway track/
formation?
What could be the causes of failure of formation?
 Atterberg Limits

It compares the differences in physical properties of

clays at various water contents
Plastic limit Pw is that lowest water content at which
the soil begins to crumble when rolled into threads.
Liquid limit Lw is that highest water content at which
the soil will not flow under standard conditions.
Some highway departments prohibit soils as fill
materials having a Lw greater than 65%

are able to know about the swelling and shrinking potential of clays & silts.
 Effect of Soil Properties On Roadbed /
Subgrade

Properties of good roadbed materials

 To fulfill the functions of subgrade, the greatest uniformity
and permanency is obtained when subgrade material is
1. free of excess moisture and has physical characteristics
providing
2.high internal friction
3.high cohesion and density
4.low compressibility
5.low elasticity
6.low capillarity



 Why High Internal Friction and Cohesion?

To hold the soil firmly in place

Soil with less cohesion, such as wet sand , is likely to
slump and slide in addition to being susceptible to
surface erosion.
 Why High Density?

A dense soil tends to exclude moisture since the

volume is largely filled with soil particles and little
room is left for moisture to intrude
 Why low compressibility?

A highly compressible soil is slow in consolidating. If

not fully compacted at the beginning, it continues to
compress under traffic, causing the top of subgrade
to settle.
 Why low elasticity?

The unfavourable reaction of compressibility is

intensified if the soil is highly elastic.
The compressed soil rebounds when the load is
removed, and the process of consolidation is
prolonged.
 Effect of Soil Properties On Roadbed /
Subgrade

Adverse Properties
üTendency to flow or run because of rounded shapes of
sand & silts. Flow occurs due to low internal friction
and cohesion.
üSwelling and frost action.
üLateral flow under pressure

 Use of soils

Gravel is the only natural soil which does not require

an admixture to make it suitable.
Theoretically ideal soil is one in which several
constituents are equally proportioned. Greater
percentage of gravel is desirable due to its hardness
and structural strength. To this should be added
sand to “bed” larger gravel particles, silt to act as
filler & clay to fill remaining voids and provide a
water film for cohesion.

 Soil Proportioning

First Method
Bring from scattered pits the desired soils in proper
amounts and mix the several types in spreading and
compacting operation.
Second Method
Engineer may obtain helpful selection at pit. If several

grades and soil types are available in one or more pits,

the loading and unloading can be performed to place
the individual soils in proper relation to each other in
fill.

 Control Tests

Standard tests are done on actual construction

samples and curves, charts & other guides are
provided, against which to measure & obtain the
desired degree of compaction. These tests are
Compaction Test
Moisture Content – for use in compaction test.

 Inspection Tests

These tests are done to insure that the standards

established by the control tests are being secured. These
tests are:
Dry density test – to determine adequacy of compaction
Soil-Volume Relations – determination of unit weights
before and after excavation to establish change in
volume.
Moisture-density relations – amount of water required per
unit of borrow material to bring the moisture content of
borrow material upto that of compacted material.

Formation(
Track)
Drainage
 What is Track Drainage?

Drainage is defined as interception, collection and

disposal of water away from track.
If you intercept someone or something that is
travelling from one place to another, you stop them
before they get to their destination
You have to intercept the evil water before it reaches
its destination which is your very own railway
formation.
Sources of Water Entering Track
 Why Drainage is so important to study?

Because:


There is scarcely any item of maintenance cost which is

not increased by effects of poor drainage.
A poorly drained subgrade permits cinders, stone dust and
dirt to accumulate in and foul the ballast, leading to
pumping joints.
Pumping joints cause excessive rail end batter, joint bar
wear & tie deterioration.
Washing out of tracks, poor line surface of gauge,
accumulation of ice & snow, obstructing tracks in
tunnels.
Poor drainage may lead to a low or zero shear strength

Drainage Systems
 Surface Drainage

Most important factor in embankment design and

maintenance
Generally, provision of 1 in 30 cross slope on top of
formation towards cess, side and catch water drains,
culverts and bridges comes under this category.
Types of Surface Drainage
 Side Drains

Normally not needed for embankment

Required if blanket is below ground level due to
height of embankment
In case of cuttings, properly designed side drains of
required water carrying capacity are to be provided

 Catch Water Drains

Surface water flowing from top of hill slope towards

the track is controlled by provision of catch water
drains
Providing side drains for the same purpose is not
feasible
Catch water drains are provided running almost
parallel to the track upto a point where the water
can be safely discharged off
 Discharge Capacity of Catch Water Drains


Channel Capacity =


Where:-


 Q = discharge in cum/sec
 V = mean velocity in m/sec
 n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
 R = A/P where, R is Hydraulic radius in m,
 A = area of the flow cross- section in square metre
 P = wetted perimeter of cross-section
 Subsurface Drainage

Main objectives of sub surface drains are to lower the

level of water table and to intercept or drain out
underground water
The sub-surface drains may consist of perforated pipe
or open jointed solid pipe in a trench with backfill
around it or it may simply be free draining material
in the trench without any pipe
The subsurface drains can also be provided with
geotextileeither along the trench or around the pipe
or both
 Backfilling

Backfilled with
excavated soil
and thoroughly
compacted so as
to stop water
directly
percolating from
backfill material
around the pipe.
 Use of Free draining materials in subsurface
drains
When only free draining material is used in trench,
the main drain may be constructed without any
pipe. The trench may be filled with material such as
gravel or stone aggregate free from organic and
deleterious substances.
Types of Subsurface Drainage
Failure of
Railway
Embankments
Failure of Railway Embankments
 Symptoms of Failure

Slips in slopes
Loss of Ballast
Variation in Cross Levels
Upheaval of the ground beyond toe of embankment
 Failure of Natural Ground

Shear Failure during or just after construction

Shear Planes
 Failure of Natural Ground
 Excessive settlement due to Upheaval of Ground beyond toe
of embankment
 Remedial Measures for preventing Failure of
Natural Ground
Sand Drains
 Remedial Measures for preventing Failure of
Natural Ground
Balancing Embankment

BALANCING BALANCING
EMBANKMENT EMBANKMENT
 Remedial Measures for preventing Failure of
Natural Ground
Sheet piles / ordinary piles
Following reasons cause excessive settlement and
Failure
shear of mainly
failure Fill Material of Embankment
due to failure of fill material:
Heavy Traffic
Inadequate slopes to Embankments
Percolation of water in Embankment (low shear
strength)
Failure Types
Slope Failure

Toe Failure

Base Failure
Remedial Measures for preventing Failure due
to fill material of embankment

üCareful selection of fill material

üBetter construction techniques
üProper design
Material Control
Flatter side slopes
Reduced Embankment Height
Stone pitching of side slopes
Proper drainage
Balancing embankments
Vertical Piles