Water Hardness

Name : MAZADUL HASAN

SHESHIR
PREPARED BY
ID: 2010000400008 right
Batch: 13th Batch (Session
2009-2013)
Department: Wet Processing
Technology
Email:
mazadulhasan@yahoo.com
Blog: www.
Textilelab.blogspot.com
Southeast University
Department of Textile
Engineering

WATER HARDNESS
Generally soaps create foam in water, but in present of some
materials the foam creation is reduced and need more soap for
producing foam, and this condition of water is called water
hardness.
The presence of Calcium, Magnesium salt i.e. bicarbonates,
sulphates, chloride in water is called causes of hardness of
water. The water which contains these salts is called hard water.
Hard water does not easily form lather with soap as the salt of
Calcium and Magnesium react with soap to form insoluble
organic salts.
CaSO4 + 2RCOONa (RCOO)2Ca +
Na2SO4
MgSO4 + 2RCOONa (RCOO)2Mg +
Na2SO4

WATER
WATER
The major concern for any kind of wet process industry is Water because
it is the quality of water which determines the quality of dyeing. Water
quality generally vary in different areas, also depends on the level or
height of water level beneath the ground. In Narayangonj water level is
around 130-140 ft but Knit Concern dyeing water is lifted from about 600
ft deep by submergible pumps.

Quality of Water found in the raw water here

total Hardness
250-300 ppm
pH
8-9
TDS
2000-3000 ppm

Quality of water required for Dyeing:

SECTION

Knit
dyeing -

HARDNE
SS

<70

IRON CONTENT

0.02 ppm

TDS

pH

<500

6.5-7

Reasons of water hardness

PES/ CLASSIFICATION OF HARDNESS

1. Temporary
hardness.

2. Permanent
hardness.

1. Temporary hardness:
Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2, Fe(HCO3)2
2. Permanent hardness:
CaCl2, CaSO4, Ca(NO3)2,
MgCl2, MgSO4, Mg(NO3)2

TEMPORARY HARDNESS
1. Temporary Hardness: Temporary hardness is due to the presence of
bi-carbonates of calcium and magnesium. This type of hardness is called
temporary hardness. Because it can be removed by easy means like
boiling. When temporary hard water is boiled, the carbonates decompose
with liberation of carbon-dioxide and precipitation of the insoluble
Carbonates which
are reformed.
Ca(HCO3)2
CaCO3 + CO2 +
H2O
Mg(HCO3)2
H2O

MgCO3 + CO2 +

MgCO3 is slightly soluble in water but heating will cause its

hydrolysis into the much less soluble Mg(OH)2.
MgCO3 + H2O Mg(OH)2 + CO2
So simple boiling and filtering of water remove temporary
hardness.

PERMANENT HARDNESS
2. Permanent Hardness:
It is due to the presence of chlorides of Sulphates of Calcium and
Magnesium. This type of hardness is called permanent hardness.
These salts do not decompose on boiling. So permanent hardness
cant be removed easily. It can be removed by lime when MgSO4 is
responsible for hardness.
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 Na2SO4 + CaCO3
MgSO4 + Na2CO3 Na2SO4 + MgCO3
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 (Lime) Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4

N.B. PH of drinking water is around 7 (Neutral)

Hardness Scales

German degree
French degree
American degree
British degree

UNITS OF HARDNESS
Hardness is expressed by1. PPM (Parts Per Million)
2. In degrees (Grains/ gallon)
1. PPM: The number of grains of calcium carbonates which is present
in one million grains of water is called PPM.
1 grains of Calcium Carbonate present in 1 million grains water
2. In degrees: The number of grains of Calcium carbonates which is
present in 70,000 grains of water.
Another unit of water hardness3. GPG Grains Per U.S. Gallon
4. PP/ 100000
5. GPG imperial Grains Per British Gallon
Here,
1 U.S. gallon = 8.33 pounds
1 British gallon = 10 pounds (Used in our country)
1 grain = 1/7000
pound;
i.e. 7000 grains = 1 lb

Definition of Different Hardness

1. 1 H (German) Hardness: 10 mg CaO

in 1 litre of water
2. 1 H (French) Hardness: 10 mg
CaCO3 in 1 litre of water
3. 1 H (English) Hardness: 10 mg
CaCO3 in 0.7 litre of water
4. 1 H (American) Hardness: 1 mg
CaCO3 in 1 litre of water

Other scales for expressing

water hardness

Parts per million (ppm): The number of parts of

substances per million parts of water is known ppm. It is
also called American hardness. It can be expressed by
another way like mg/l or gm/m3.

Grains per U.S. gallon (gpg): The number of grains of

substances per 1 U.S. gallon of water (1 U.S. gallon of
water weighs 8.33 pound) is known gpg.
Parts per hundred thousand (pp/100,000): The number
of parts of substances per 100,000 parts of water is
known pp/100,000.

Grains per imperial gallon (gpg imp): The number of

grains of substances per 1 British imperial gallon of
water (1 imperial gallon of water weighs 10.0 pound) is

Relation of different scales -

1 ppm = 1.0 mg/l = 0.1 pp/100,000 = 0.0583 gpg (U.S.) =

0.07 gpg imp.

Conversion factor of different water

hardness scale

Scale

Hardness
USA

GB

1 USA 1.0

0.056

0.07

0.1

1 D

17.9

1.0

1.25

1.79

1 GB

14.3

0.8

1.0

1.43

1 F

10.0

0.56

0.7

1.0

10dH = 17.90 American Hardness = 1.450 eH = 1.790 fH

10dH = 10 mg/ litre CaO

= 7.4 mg/ litre MgO
= 22.5 mg/ litre Ca(HCO3)2
= 30 mg/ litre NaHCO3
Among the above the hardness which is
expressed by the amount of NaHCO3 present in
water is called alkaline hardness.

CLASSIFICATION OF WATER ACCORDING TO

HARDNESS:
DESCRIPTION

TOTAL HARDNESS

Very soft

0-40

Soft

5-80

Mild

9-140

Fairy hard

15-180

Hard

19-300

Very hard

>300

From the above types of water, soft water with total hardness
5-80 is suitable for dyeing. In another cases like scouring we may
use hard water.
Water hardness can also be noted as below:
Upto 50 PPM
Water is very soft
50 to 100 PPM Water is moderately soft
100 to 150 PPM Water is slightly hard
200 to 300 PPM Water is hard
Above 300 PPM Water is very hard

STANDARD/ QUALITY OF DYE HOUSE WATER

STANDARD FOR TEXTILE DYE HOUSE WATER SUPPLY/ SPECIFICATION FOR
PROCESS WATER/ IDEAL QUALITY IF FEED WATER FOR TEXTILE INDUSTRY

MINIMUM STANDARD

PERMISSIBLE

CONCENTRATION
Color
Smell
PH value
Water hardness
Dissolved solids
Solids deposits
Organic substances
Inorganic salt
Iron (Fe)
Copper (Cu)
Nitrate (NO3)
Nitrite (NO2)

Colorless
Odorless
Nature (PH 7.8 )
Less than 50 dH
Less than 1 ml/L
Less than 50 mg/ L
Less than 20 mg/ L
Less than 500 mg/ L
Less than 0.1 mg/ L
Less than 0.005 mg/ L
Less than 50 mg/ L
Less than 5 mg/ L

Iron and copper are responsible for the creation of spots on fabric.
For those spots we can use spot removers.

ESTIMATION OF WATER HARDNESS

ESTIMATION OF WATER HARDNESS

Water hardness can be determined by the following 2 methods1.

By titration with standard soap solution:

In this method total hardness/ permanent hardness can be
measured.

2.

By titration with HCl:

In this method temporary hardness can be measured.

ESTIMATION OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS BY TITRATION BY TITRATION

WITH HCL:
For determining temporary hardness 200cc hard water
is taken into a 500 cc bottle. Then few drops of methyl
orange is added in it as an indicator. Now titration is carried
out by adding 0.1N cold HCl until the yellow color of
methyl orange turns colorless.
Here, each meal 0.1N HCl is equivalent to 0.005 gm of
CaCO3. The associated reactions are as follows:
Ca(HCO3)2+ 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2HCl MgCl2 + CO2 + H2O
EXPRESSION:
Multiplying the required amount of 0.1N HCl for
titration in
cc by
2.5 gives French hardness
1.78 gives English hardness
1.4 gives German hardness.
Permanent hardness can be found by deducting the
temporary hardness from total hardness i.e.

Permanent hardness = Total hardness Temporary hardness

Classification of water according to hardness

Hardness rating

ppm of CaCO3

(grains/US gallon)
of CaCO3

Soft

0 to <75

0 to <5.2

Medium

75 to < 150

5.2 to <10.5

Hard

150 to < 300

10.5 to <21

Very hard

300 and above

21 and greater

Problems causes by hard water in wet processing

and their correction
Consequences of using hard water
1.

Precipitation of soaps;

2.

Redeposition of dirt and insoluble soaps on the fabric

being washed this can cause yellowing and lead to
unlevel dyeing and poor handle;

3.

Precipitation of some dyes as calcium or magnesium

salts;

4.

Scale formation on equipments and in boilers and

pipelines;

5.

Reduction of the activity of the enzymes used in

desizing;

(A) Problems in boiler

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O
MgCO3 + H2O Mg(OH)2 +CO2

Heat loss for pipe scaling

Scale thickness
(mm)

% heat loss
(approx.)

1.00

10

17

22

10

30

20

43

Boiler feed water quality:

Parameter
Appearance
Residual hardness
Oxygen
Temporary CO2
Permanent CO2
Iron
Copper
pH (at 25 C)
Boiler feed water temp.

Acceptable limit
Clear, without residue
<5 ppm
<0.02 mg/l
0 mg/l
<25 mg/l
<0.05 mg/l
<0.01 mg/l
8.0 - 9.0
>90 C

B) Problems in processing

Wastage of soap

(reaction with soap)

2 C17H35COONa + CaSO4 (C17H35COO)2Ca +

Na2SO4

Reaction with dyestuffs

- Reaction with dyes and lead dye wastage
- Sometimes it produces a duller shade

How does the water hardness affect the textile

processing?

Desizing

Deactivate enzymes and makes it

insolubilize some size materials like
starch and PVA

Scouring

Combine with soap, precipitate metalorganic acids. Produce yellowing of offwhite shades, reduce cleaning
efficiency, and water absorption

Bleaching
Mercerizing

Decompose bleach baths

Form insoluble metal oxides, reduce
absorbency and luster

How does the water hardness affect the textile

processing?

Dyeing

Combine with dyes changing their

shades, insoubilize dyes, cause tippy
dyeing, reduce dye diffusion and hence
results in poor washing and rubbing
fastness.

Printing

Break emulsions, change thickener

efficiency and viscosity, and those
problems indicated for dyeing

Finishing

Interfere with catalysts, cause resins

and other additives to become
nonreactive, break emulsions and
deactivate soaps

Estimation of water hardness

1. Using direct reading digital meter or strip
2. In laboratory it is usually determined by titration with a
standardized solution (e.g. Na-EDTA)

Estimation of total (permanent & temporary)

hardness of supply water
(by di-sodium salt of EDTA)

Basic principle:
- Titration of sample water against standards (0.01M)
EDTA solution

Preparation of 0.01M or 0.02N EDTA solution:

Molecular weight of disodium salt of EDTA
(CH2COOH)2 N2(CH2)2(CH2COONa)2.2H2O
= (12+1*2+12+16*2+1)2 + 14*2+(12+2)*2+
(12+1*2+12+16*2+23)2 + 2*18
= 118+ 28+28+162+36
= 372

In 1M solution of 1000ml contain 372 gm Na2EDTA

In 0.01M solution of 1000ml contain 3.72 gm
Na2-EDTA
In 0.01M solution of 100ml contain 0.372 gm
Na2-EDTA

Preparation of ammonia buffer

solution:
- 145ml of liquor ammonia (NH4OH) of specific
gravity 0.88+15gm NH4Cl + distilled water to
make 250ml solution to give a pH of 10.

Procedure:
Procedure:
- Add 1ml of buffer solution (NH4OH+NH4Cl) to 100ml
of the original water sample. Add 3-4 drops of
Eriochrome Black T indicator (0.2g dye in 15ml of
triethanol amine + 5ml of ethanol)/ 1tablet (making
powder) total hardness indicator.
- Titrate against 0.01M prepared EDTA solutions in
burette until the color charges from wine red (or
violet) to pure blue (or turquoise) with no reddish
tone; then calculate the total hardness in terms of
ppm of CaCO3.

Calculation:

TOTAL HARDNESS =
Volume of 0.01M EDTA solution in ml
------------------------------------------------- 1000 ppm
of CaCO3.
Volume of sample water in ml

Determination of temporary hardness of supply

water
Basic principle:
- This can be estimated by titration of sample water
against standard solution of hydrochloric acid
( 0.05N HCl).
Preparation of 0.05N HCl:
Molecular weight of HCL = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5
& Equivalent weight of HCl = 36.5
Therefore,
1000 ml of 1N HCl contain 36.5 gm HCl
1000 ml of 0.05N HCL contain (36.5 x 0.05) or 1.825
gm HCl
So, 100 ml of 0.05N HCl contain 0.1825 gm HCl
Let, the concentration of diluted HCl is 35%, then
35 gm HCl present in 100 ml of diluted HCl
& 0.1825 gm HCl present in {(100 x 0.1825)/35} or
0.528 ml diluted HCl

Procedure:
Add 1cc or 2 3 drop [from the solution of (0.1
gm solid methyl orange + 100cc distilled water)]
methyl orange indicator to 100ml of fresh distilled
water & titrate against 0.05N HCl. Let the titration
reading be a ml.
Now titrate 100 ml of the sample water against
0.05N HCl using the same indicator (methyl-orange).
Let the titration reading b ml.
Observation:

- Reading should be taken when the color of indicator change

orange to red.
Table I: Experimental data for reading a
Table II: Experimental data for reading b

Calculation:

Temporary hardness
=
50(b-a) 0.05 1000
------------------------------ ppm (in terms of CaCO3)
100

Determination of permanent hardness of supply

water
(by di-sodium salt of EDTA)
Preparation of 0.01M or 0.02N EDTA solution:
Molecular weight of disodium salt of EDTA
(CH2COOH)2 (N2CH2)2(CH2COONa)2.2H2O
= (12+1*2+12+16*2+1)2 + 14*2+(12+2)*2+
(12+1*2+12+16*2+23)2 + 2*18
= 118+ 28+28+162+36
= 372
Therefore,
In 1M solution of 1000ml contain 372 gm Na2-EDTA
In 0.01M solution of 1000ml contain 3.72 gm Na2-EDTA
In 0.01M solution of 100ml contain 0.372 gm Na2-EDTA

Preparation of ammonia buffer solution:

- 145ml of liquor ammonia (NH4OH) of specific gravity
0.88+15gm NH4Cl + distilled water to make 250ml
solution to give a pH of 10.

Procedure:
- Take 100ml of sample water in a conical flask; boil it
(around 30 minutes) to about 50 ml; cool and filter to
remove bicarbonate residual (temporary hardness) and to
expel carbon dioxide. Dilute it to by distilled water to make
100 ml. Add 2ml of ammonia buffer solution followed by
one tablet of hardness indicator.
- Titrate against 0.01M prepared EDTA solutions from
burette until the color charges from wine red (or violet) to
pure blue (or turquoise) with no reddish tone; then
calculate the hardness in terms of ppm of CaCO3.

Calculation:
Total hardness =
Volume of 0.01M EDTA solution in ml
---------------------- -------------------------- 1000 ppm of
CaCO3.
Volume of sample water in ml

Methods for water softening

1. Lime-soda process
2. Base exchange
process
3. Demineralization
process
4. Sequestering agent

1. Lime-Soda process
In this process hydrated lime and sodium carbonate is used
to remove the hardness.
For temporary hardness

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2 CaCO3 + 2 H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 MgCO3 + CaCO3 +
2 H2O
MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3
For permanent hardness

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4

MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + Mg(OH)2
CaCl2 form is removed by

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 2 NaCl + CaCO3

The Plant:
In lime soda softening plant main parts are1. Reagent tank (Soda lime + Coagulants)
2. Reaction tank
3. Filter
4. Soft water storage tank.

Lime-Soda process
PROCESS
The lime soda [Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2] and coagulant (NaAlO2)
are metered into the reaction tanks together with a
predetermined amount of hard water. Agitation is brought
about in every tank by a large propeller. When sufficient time
has elapsed for the precipitation to be completed
the water passes through filters to the soft water storage.
THE RESULT
By this process we can produce soft water with 50-100 ppm.
But if temperature and agitation are increased water with 5-20
ppm hardness can be obtained.

Permutit process (Base/ Ion exchange method)

Permutit means exchange; in this process, hard water is
treated with base
exchange complex or Zeolites to remove the hardness of
water. Zeolites are naturally occurring insoluble mineral of
the sodium aluminosilicate type complex (e.g. NaAlSiO4.
3H2O Na-Permutit). This type of ion exchanger may
produce artificially.

asic Principle

For temporary hardness

2Na-Permutit + Ca(HCO3)2 Ca-Permutit +
2NaHCO3
For permanent hardness
2Na-Permutit + CaSO4 Ca-Permutit + Na2SO4
2Na-Permutit + MgSO4 Mg-Permutit + Na2SO4
2Na-Permutit + MgCl2 Mg-Permutit + 2NaCl

Permutit process (Base/ Ion exchange method)

Regeneration of Zeolites
For regeneration of sodium salt of the zeolite involves passing a
concentrated solution (generally 10%) of NaCl through the
exhausted zeolites.
Ca-Permutit + 2NaCl 2Na-Permutit + CaCl2

ADVANTAGES:
1. By this process water can be softened up to 0-2 ppm,
even zero hardness can be obtained.
2. Less floor space is required for machines.
3. Here only one chemical is used and no objectionable
chemical is produced as by product.
4. Here regeneration is possible and it is easy to carry out
with CaCl solution.

Permutit process (Base/ Ion exchange method)

PROCESS
The Zeolites are taken in the vessel as shown in figure with other
required substances. When the hare ward is passed through the
inlet,

comes in contact with Zeolites, the water softened and soft water
is collected from the downward outlet. When sufficient amount of
hard water has passed then the supply of hard water is closed and
then flow is reserved and beds of Zeolites and other substances
are cleaned. Then the cleansed is regenerated by passing 10%
NaCl through the Zeolites and the Zeolites are regenerated again.

Demineralization method
The newer synthetic polymer ion exchangers are much
more versatile than the zeolites and are widely used for
water softening and demineralization. They are often
called ion exchange resins. This reagent can remove all
mineral salts to complete demineralisation of hard water.
It has two types of ion exchanger Cation exchanger and
Anion exchanger.

Cation exchange:

A) Cation exchange:

Cation exchanger has replaceable H+ or Na+ ion. Cation

exchange resins are organic in nature (made up by
polymerization of polyhydric phenols with formaldehyde. It is
also manufactured by sulphonation of coal). These reagents
replace the ions of hard water by hydrogen, leaving the water
an equivalent amount of acids.

For temporary hardness

H2R + Ca(HCO3)2 CaR + 2H2CO3

H2CO3 CO2 + H2O

For temporary hardness

H2R + CaCl2 CaR + 2HCl

H2R + CaSO4 CaR + H2SO4

General reaction

2(Polymer SO3H+) (s) + Ca+ (aq) (Polymer SO3)2Ca+

(s) + 2H+ (aq)

Anion exchange:
B) Anion exchange:

Anion exchanger has replaceable OH ion. In this unit acid is

absorbed by the anionic exchanger which displaces the
anionic groups like Cl, SO4 , from acids.
General reaction
2(Polymer NR3+OH) (s) + 2Cl (aq) 2(Polymer
NR3+Cl) (s) + 2HO (aq)

Water can be totally demineralised by firstly exchanging all

cations using s strongly acid form of a cation exchanger.
Thus a solution of salts M+X becomes a solution of acid
H+X, the M+ ions being retained by the resin.
Subsequently a strongly basic form of an anion exchanger
absorbs the X ions and liberates OH ions into water. These
then neutralize the H+ ions from the first step. The reslt is
retention of all anions and cations and the neutralization of
H+ and OH to form pure demineralization water.

2H+ (aq) + 2OH (aq) 2H2O

Regeneration of reagents:

1. Cation exchanger
(Polymer SO3)2Ca+ (s) + 2HCl 2(Polymer SO3H+) (s) + Ca2Cl

2. Anionic exchanger
2(Polymer NR3+Cl) (s) + 2NaOH 2(Polymer NR3+OH) (s) +
2NaCl

Demineralization Treatment plant

Plant Description: Demineralization by Resin treatment

Three vessels system
Removal

Vessel 1 Multi-Grade Filter (MGF) For Iron

Vessel 2 Activated Carbon Filter (ACF)

For TDS removal

Vessel 3 Softener Filter (SF -Resin) For Hardness removal

Demineralization Treatment plant

Sequestering Agents
Addition of a sequestering agent to the water
avoids many problems from relatively low
concentrations of undesirable metal ions.

Example
EDTA (ethylenediamine tetra-acitic acid), related
aminocarboxylic acids, polyphosphates such as
1. sodium tetrametaphosphate Na4P4O12,
2. Calgon -s
3. Sodium hexametaphosphate Na6P6O18.

Problems caused by hard water in textile industry

Hard water can create so many problems during wet processing from
desizing to finishing in textile mills. Since every process is related to
the next process, so all processes should be done precisely to get
best result. To do it first we have to know what problems hard water
can create in different stage of textile processing.
Process

Scouring

Problem
Hard react with soap during scouring. Soap is the Na & K salt
of higher fatty acid (C17H35COONa). The Hard water does not
easily form lather by reacting with soap. The Ca & Mg salt of
hard water reacts with soap and produce insoluble organic
salts which becomes the wastage of soap.
CaSO4 + 2 C17H35COONa --> (C17H35COO)2Ca + Na2SO4
Insoluble organic salt
If we use hard water in wet processing, then they produce
insoluble salt which is deposited with the fabric. As a result,
the surface of scoured fabric become harsh, hard & nonflexible which creates problem in the next process like
produced uneven dyeing.

Process

Problem

Mercerizin It forms insoluble metal acid, reduce absorbency and

g
luster.
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions of hard water react with dye
molecules and precipitated the dye. As a result
dyestuff are spoilt. Hence, uneven shade (depth of
Dyeing
dyeing) of color is produced.

Printing

Finishing

Bleaching
Desizing

It break the emulsion, change its thickness and

efficiency and it is also harmful for thickener. Hard
water cause problems in printing process like dyeing.
Hard water interferes with catalysts, cause resins and
other additives to become non reactive, break
emulsion and datives soap.
Hard water decompose bleach bath.
H2O2 --> H2O + [O]
Hard water de-active enzymes & insolubilize size
materials such as starch, PVA etc.

Potential Problems Caused by Hard Water in Textile Wet Processing:

In Boiler If hard water is used in boiler, then a layer is formed on the inner
surface of the vessel or in the inner side of tube. This layer is very
hard just like as stone which is not removed without hammer or
chesser or tessel. This is called scale. In boiler, temporary hard
water produce CaCO3 & Mg(OH)2, the combination of CaCO3 &
Mg(OH)2 is called scale.
Ca(HCO3)2 --> CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 --> Mg CO3 + CO2 + H2O
MgCO3 + H2O --> Mg(OH)2 + CO2
[CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 ] --> Scale.
As a result, in boiler more heat will be needed & for that, more fuel
will be required. For scale formation, equally heat transformation in
boiler tube is not possible very often. As a result, for excess heat of
a particular part of the tube, the tube may burst.
Heat loss of tube up to 40% according to the diameter of the tube.
Heat loss by pipe scaling up to 40% for 20 mm scale.
SCALE THICKNESS
HEAT LOSS
1 mm
approximately 10%
3 mm

17%
5 mm

22%

Potential Problems Caused by Hard Water in Textile Wet

Processing:
Wastage
Soap
Detergent

Reaction with
Dyestuff

of Ca and Mg salt react with soap and lather is not formed

& easily. The reaction of it is1. ( R-COO)2Ca + Na2SO4 ------> R-COONa + CaSO4
2. ( R-COO)2Ca + Mg2SO4 ------> (R-COO)2Mg + CaSO4
3. 2R-COONa + Mg2SO4 ------> (R-COO)2Mg + Na2SO4
The reactive groups present in dyes, react with Na, Ca, Mg,
Fe of hard water. This causes wastages of dye, produces
duller shade and faulty dyeing. Sequestering agent is added
to prevent it.

Deposition on
Soap reacts with hard water and produces insoluble salts
Textile Material which deposit on the fabric during scouring. These salts do
hard and un-flexible the fabric.
Corrosion of
Boiler

In boiler, CO2 reacts with the iron (in presence of dissolved

O2), forming FeCO3 which hydrolyses to Fe(OH)2.
FeCO3 + H2 ------> Fe + H2O + CO2
Fe(OH)2 +CO2------->FeCO3 + H2O

Heat Loss

Due to scale in the pipe, fuel consumption increases, thus

heat loss is occurred. Again scale formation reduces thermal
conductivity. Local overheating under the scale causes