Introduction to Hydrocarbons Industry

The Oil Chain

Hydrocarbons life -cycle

Represent all those activities regarding petroleum compound (both liquid and
gaseous) from their exploration to their distribution and use.
It can be divided into two different stages:

UPSTREAM

DOWNSTREAM

New fields Exploration

Oil and gas transport

Drilling fields

Refining

Oil and gas Production

Petrochemicals
Distribution to the end
use

Petroleum definition

It is a complex MIXTURE OF HYDROCARBONS with small amounts of

other chemical compounds; its elementary composition is:
C and H elements (97%)
S, N, O elements (less than 3%)

C: carbon; H: hydrogen; S: sulfur; N: nitrogen; O: oxygen

Hydrocarbons Structures
Hydrogen
Carbon

Methane
(gas)

Pentane
(liquid)

Cyclopentane
(liquid)

Hydrocarbon
ORIGIN

MIGRATION

TRASFORMATIO
N OF ORGANIC
MATTER

OIL MOVEMENT
INTO
SUBSURFACE
ROCKS

About a million years

ACCUMULATION

OIL ACCUMULATION
IN POROUSE AND
PERMEABLE INTO
STRATA OF ROCK

Hydrocarbons origin Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the basis of all organic
substances, from fossil fuels to
human cells. On Earth, carbon is
continually on the move cycling
through living things, the land,
ocean, atmosphere.
Out of this cycle dead organic
material
buried
and
under
increasing
conditions
of
temperature and pressure may turn
into fossil fuels
When humans burn fossil fuels,
most of the carbon quickly enters
the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

Hydrocarbons origin

Hydrocarbons Migration
Primary migration: expulsion from a source rock towads more permeable rocks
Secondary migration: the movement of hydrocarbons inside a permeable rocks

Hydrocarbon accoumulation: Reservoir

A Reservoir is a formation that contains hydrocarbons.
Reservoir has a distinctive shape, or configuration, that prevents the escape of
hydrocarbons that migrate into it

Reservoir Rock
This subsurface body of rock has sufficient porosity and permeability to store and
transmit fluids

A pore is a small
open space

Connected pores give

a rock permeability

Hydrocarbons life -cycle

Represent all those activities regarding petroleum compound (both liquid and
gaseous) from their exploration to their distribution and use.
It can be divided into two different stages:

UPSTREAM

DOWNSTREAM

New fields Exploration

Oil and gas transport

Drilling fields

Refining

Oil and gas Production

Petrochemicals
Distribution to the end use

Exploration
Land and offshore seismic survey works on the principle of the time it takes for
reflected sound waves to travel through matter (rock) of varying densities

Well Drilling Land Drilling Rig

The well is created by drilling a hole
into the earth with a drilling rig which
rotates a drill string with a bit
attached
After the hole is drilled, sections of
steel tubing known as casing is placed
in the hole to provide structural
integrity
A circulation system pumps drilling
mud (mixture of water, clay, weighting
material and chemicals) to lift rock
cuttings from the drill bit to the surface

Well Drilling Offshore Drilling Rigs

Permanent rigs: built once large deposits of hydrocarbons have been found.
Moveable rigs: can be moved from place to place, allowing for drilling in multiple
locations. Often used for exploratory purposes.

Fixed Rig

Jack up

Semisubmersible

Drilling Ship

Offshore Fixed Rig

Expensive, for
viable reservoirs

economically

For not excessively water depht

Multiple well heads and
adjustable parts to extract oil
from the surrounding area

Jack up

Suitable for shallow waters

Towed onto location with its legs up and
the barge section floating on the water
Upon arrival at the drilling location, the
legs are jacked down onto the seafloor
Raised above the water to a
predetermined height so that wave, tidal
and current loading acts only on the legs

Semisubmersible
Advantage of submerging most of
the area of components in contact
with the sea and minimizing loading
from waves and wind
Can operate in a wide range of
water depths, including deep water
Usually anchored

Drilling Ship

Susceptible to sea motions

Capable of operating in deep water
(over 2000 meters)
Usually anchored

Well Logging
Well logging is the practice of making a detailed record (log) of
physical parameters of the rock formations drilled by the well
(resistivity, density, hydrogen index, natural radioactivity, temperature,
acoustic features, etc.).
It is widely used in all the phases of the Hydrocarbons Exploration and
Production process:
while drilling;
at the end of the drilling phase;
during the productive phases of the wells.

Well Casing

Consists of a series of metal

tubes installed in the freshly
drilled
hole
in
order
to:

Well-head
Ground level
Cellar

- strengthen the sides of the

well hole.
- ensure that no oil or natural
gas seeps out of the well hole as
it is brought to the surface.
- keep other fluids or gases from
seeping into the formation
through the well

Surface casing

Intermediate
casing

Production liner

Completing a Well

Is the process of making a well ready for

production
Consists of a number of steps:
Completion
Installing the wellhead
Installing lifting equipment or treating
the well

Completion

The
goal
of
these
operations is to optimize
the flow of the reservoir
fluids into the well bore,
up
through
the
producing string, and
into
the
surface
collection system.

Wellhead

The primary role of the wellhead is

to hold the casing and the
production tubing.
On top of the wellhead lies the
tubing hanger, from which the
production tubing is run.
The christmas tree sits on top of
the tubing hanger.

Christmas Tree

The set of valves, spools

and fittings connected to
the top of a well to direct
and control the flow of
formation fluids from the
well

Oil and Gas Processing

Treatments carried out are conducted on well area, in order to allow the delivering to the
treatment plant and on treatment plants, whose function is to further separate and treat
oil & gas.
Pretreatments

Water/oil/gas separation
Gas heating or inhibition to avoid hydrate formation

Final treatments
Gas dehydration, sweetening and compression
Oil desalting, dehydration, desulphurisation and fractionation

Oil and Gas Plants Utilities

Electric energy production

Fire-fighting network

Fuel gas treatment

Flares system

Instruments air treatments

Water disposal

Steam production

Cathodic protection

Waters treatment for industrial

civil usage

and

Gas Plant Production Facilities

Block Diagram
Firefighting
System

Chemicals

Well
Area

Gathe
Ring

Plant
Inlet

Treat
ment

Compression

Measure
Deliver

Effluent

Gas Pretreatments and Gathering System

Firefighting System
Water, Foam, Powder,
CO2 Extinguishers

Well Area
Well Heads
Heaters
Test Separator
Platforms

Chemicals
Hydrate Inhibition
Corrosion Prevention

Gathering
System
Flow-lines
Pipe-lines
Sea-lines

Gas Plant Treatments

Fire-fighting System
Water, Foam,Powder,
Extinguishers

Chemicals

Plant Inlet
Slug-Catcher
Pig Traps

Treatment
Separation
Dehydration
Sweetening

Compression/
Pumping

Measure
Deliver

Effluent Treatment
Liquid / Water / Gas

Block diagram of a typical oil-producing facility

Oil Centre Block Diagram

Hydrocarbons life -cycle

Represent all those activities regarding petroleum compound (both liquid and
gaseous) from their exploration to their distribution and use.
It can be divided into two different stages:

UPSTREAM

DOWNSTREAM

New fields Exploration

Oil and gas transport

Drilling fields

Refining

Oil and gas Production

Petrochemicals
Distribution to the end
use

Oil and gas transportation

OIL TANKERS

PIPELINE

Downstream Activities: Refining

A refinery breaks down crude oil into various components which then are selectively
changed into new products.
Four basic kind of process:
Separation
Structure rearrangement
Cracking
Treatments

Refining Typical Processes

Separation processes
Desalting
Atmospheric Distillation
Vacuum Distillation
Solvent Deasphalting
Structure rearrangement processes
Catalytic Reforming
Isomerization
Alkylation

Refining Typical Processes

Treatment
Hydrotreatment/ Hydrofinishing
Cracking processes
Visbreaking/ Thermal cracking
Coking
Catalytic cracking (FCC/RCC)
Hydrocracking
- Distillate hydrocracking
- Residue Hydrocracking

Atmospheric Distillation

Oil is piped through hot furnaces.

The resulting liquids and vapors
are discharged into distillation
tower.
Inside the tower, the liquids and
vapors separate into components
or fractions according to weight
and boiling point.

Products from Crude oil

Petroleum gas: used for heating, cooking, making plastics. Commonly known by
the names methane, ethane, propane, butane; boiling range less than 40 C. Often
liquefied under pressure to create LPG (liquefied petroleum gas).
Naphtha: intermediate that will be further processed to make chemicals or
gasoline; boiling range 60 to 100 C.
Gasoline: motor fuel; boiling range 40 to 205 C.
Kerosene: fuel for jet engines and tractors; starting material for making other
products; boiling range 175 to 325 C.
Gasoil or Diesel distillate: used for diesel fuel and heating oil; starting material
for making other products; boiling range 250 to 350 C.
Lubricating oil: used for motor oil, grease, other lubricants; boiling range 350to
550 C.
Heavy gasoil or Fuel oil: used for industrial fuel; starting material for making
other products; boiling range 350 to 600 C.
Residuals: coke, asphalt, tar, waxes; starting material for making other products;
boiling range greater than 600 C.

Products Distribution in Crude Oil

Product distribution in crude oil does not match with product

demand distribution

Refined Products Demand

Hydroskimming and Conversion Refineries

Hydroskimming Refinery:
A refinery which uses only limited processes to produce basic fuels (gas, LPG, motor
gasoline, distillates)
No upgrading of heavy residual oils to lighter products.
Usually processing of higher cost light crude feeds to limit the production of heavy fuel
oils
Conversion Refinery:
A refinery which has more complex processes to convert heavy oil fractions to more
valuable lighter products
Light product upgrading processes to increase quality of produced gasoline
Product treatment facilities to remove sulphurand other contaminants
Usually processing of heavy, lower quality crudes or crude blends.

Simple Refinery

Conversion Refinery

Refined Products Distribution

LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas)

Highly volatile hydrocarbon liquid stored under pressure

Mainly constituted by propane and butanes coming from primary
distillation and from light ends of conversion processes
Its main uses are in the heating and automotive fields.
Main specs (from EN 589):
motor octane number, MON 89 minimum
sulphur content, 50 ppm maximum
RVP at 40C, 1550 kPa maximum

Gasoline Blending and Specs

Main gasoline quality specs from EN228

Jet Fuel

Used in aviation both for civil and military

application
Quality must be homogeneous on an
international basis due to long distance
application
Jet A-1 (JP-8) is the main product
Main spec for Jet A1 fixed by IATA
(International
Aviation
Transport
Association)

Main Jet A1 Def Stan 91-91/3 and ASTM D1655-99

Gasoil or Diesel specs and blending

Main gasoil quality specs from EN590

Separation Processes

Desalting
The main function of the Desalter is to remove salt and water form the crude oil
before it reaches any of the major unit operations.
The Desalter removes contaminants from crude oil by first emulsifying the crude oil
with chemicals and wash water to promote thorough contact of the water and oil.
After the oil has been washed and mixed as an emulsion of oil and water,
demulsifying chemicals are then added and electrostatic field sare used to break
the emulsion.

Distillation
The ADU (Atmospheric Distillation Unit) separates most of the lighter end
products such as gases, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and gasoil from the crude oil.
The VDU (Vacuum Distillation Unit) takes the residuum from the ADU
(Atmospheric Distillation Unit) and separates the heavier end products such as light
vacuum gas oil, heavy vacuum distillate, slop wax and residue.

Solvent Deasphalting

Separation process in which residue is separated by molecular weight (density),

instead of by boiling point
Solvent Deasphalting process produces a low-contaminant deasphalted oil (DAO)
rich in paraffinic type molecules. These fractions can then be further processed in
conventional conversion units such as an FCC unit or hydrocracking unit.
The pitch product contains the majority of the residues contaminants (metals,
asphaltenes, Conradson carbon) and is rich in aromatic compounds and
asphaltenes.

Treatment Processes

Hydrotreating
The products from the Crude Units and the feeds to other units contain some
natural impurities, such as sulfur and nitrogen and other contaminants.
Using the Hydrotreating process these impurities can be removed to reduce
pollution when finished fuels (gasoline, diesel, fuel oils) are used.
Hydrofinishing is used to modify also other properties (i.e. aromatic content)
Heavier oils, high in sulfur and nitrogen, have also to be treated before
downstream catalytic conversion processes.
Hydrotreating (Hydrodesulphurization & Hydrodenitrogenation) are catalytic
processes using H2 to perform a very mild hydrogenation of S and N2 in
hydrocarbons. S and N2 are converted to H2S and NH3.

Structure Rearrangement Processes

Catalytic Reforming
Octane rating is a key measurement of how well a gasoline performs in an
automobile engine.
Much of the gasoline that comes from the Crude Units or from the Cracking
Units does not have enough octane to burn well in cars.
The gasoline process streams in the refinery that have a fairly low octane
rating are sent to a Reforming Unit where their octane levels are boosted.
Catalytic reformate furnishes approximately 40% of the blending
components to produce gasoline.
Cat reforming is a primary source for benzene, toluene and xylenes(BTX).

C5/C6 Isomerization
In chemistry isomerisation is the process by which one molecule is transformation
into another molecule which has exactly the same atoms, but wherein these atoms
are rearranged
e.g. A-B-C B-A-C
(these related molecules are known as isomers)
Isomerization converts straight-chain paraffins n-pentane and n-hexane into their
respective branched-chain isoparaffins having of substantially higher octane
number.
n-pentane (RON 62) iso-pentane (RON 92)
n-hexanes (RON 25) iso-hexanes (RON 75)

Alkilation
In chemistry isomerisation is the process by which one molecule is transformation
into another molecule which has exactly the same atoms, but wherein these atoms
are rearranged
e.g. A-B-C B-A-C
(these related molecules are known as isomers)
Isomerization converts straight-chain paraffins n-pentane and n-hexane into their
respective branched-chain isoparaffins having of substantially higher octane
number.
n-pentane (RON 62) iso-pentane (RON 92)
n-hexanes (RON 25) iso-hexanes (RON 75)

Cracking Processes

Types of Cracking
Thermal Cracking
you heat large hydrocarbons at high temperatures (sometimes high pressures as
well) until they break apart.
Steam: high temperature steam (816C) is used to break ethane, butane and
naphtha into ethylene and benzene which are used to manufacture chemicals.
Visbreaking: residual from the distillation tower is heated (482 C), cooled with
gas oil and rapidly burned (flashed) in a distillation tower. This process reduces the
viscosity of heavy weight oils and produces tar.
Coking: residual from the distillation tower is heated to temperatures above 482C
until it cracks into heavy oil, gasoline and naphtha. When the process is done, a
heavy, almost pure carbon residue is left (coke). The coke is cleaned from the
cokers and sold.

Types of Cracking
Catalytic Cracking
uses a catalyst to speed up the cracking reaction. Catalysts include zeolite,
aluminium hydrosilicate, bauxite and silica-alumina.
Fluid catalytic cracking: a hot, fluid catalyst cracks heavy gas oil into diesel oils
and gasoline.
Hydrocracking: similar to fluid catalytic cracking, but uses a different catalyst,
lower temperatures, higher pressure, and hydrogen gas. It takes heavy oil and
cracks it into gasoline and kerosene (jet fuel).
After the hydrocarbons are cracked into smaller hydrocarbons, the products go
through another fractional distillation column to separate them.

Residue Hydrocracking
The residue is the crude oil fraction that doesnt distille under vacuum conditions
The residues can be classified in:
Atmospheric residue (B.P. 350/370+ or 410+C)
Vacuum residue (B.P. 500-550+)
The crude oil can contain 10-50% (even more) of vacuum residue
Residue Hydrocracking:
Converts the residue heavy MW molecules into distillate
Increases the H/C of the product
Removes heteroatoms (in particulars: S, N and metals)

Maintenance

Maintenance Definition

Maintenance is a combination of technical and administrative actions, including

supervisory actions, whose purpose is to maintain and/or restore an item to
enable it to work properly

Basic Function of Maintenance

The function of the maintenance system is:
to guarantee the running of the production plant
to minimize maintenance costs

Plant Maintenance Typologies

Preventive Maintenance
Corrective Maintenance
Extraordinary Maintenance
Reliability centred maintenance
Minor Improvements

Energy Industry Scenarios

Operating Cycle In Energy Industry (Eni Example)

The main oil companies in the world (2004) Classification criteria

SUPERMAJOR
It includes three companies (Exxon-Mobil, BP, Shell) with reserves higher than 15 Billions of boe
and a production that is greater than 3 billions of boe/day
MAJOR INTEGRATED
It includes five companies (Chevron-Texaco, Total, Conoco-Phillips, Eni, Repsol-YPF) With
reserves between 3 15 billions of boe and production ranging from 1 to 3 millions of boe/g.
LARGE INDIPENDENT
It includes 4 companies (Anadarko, Occidental, Burlington, Unocal) with reserves between 1,8
3 billions of boe and production ranging from 0,4 e 1 million of boe/g; Their activity is
.concentrated in the North American

The main oil companies in the world Oil reserves

The Middle East has 66% of the word oil reserves.

The first 12 international oil companies (Exxon-Mobil, BP Shell, Chevron Texaco, Total,
Conoco-Philips, Eni, Repsol-YPF, Anadarko, Occidental, Burlington, Unocal) hold reserves
of around 6% of the world total.
If we compare these data, we can understand the strategic importance of the Middle East.

Hydrocarbon production (thousand boe/day)

MAJOR INTEGRATED

SUPERMAJOR

EXXON
MOBIL

SHELL

BP

CHEVRON
TEXACO

TOTALFINA
ELF

2001

ENI

REPSOL
YPF

PHILLIPS

CONOCO

Proved hydrocarbon reserves (billion boe)

MAJOR
MAJOR INTEGRATED
INTEGRATED

SUPERMAJOR

EXXON
MOBIL

SHELL

BP

CHEVRON
TEXACO

TOTALFINA
ELF

2001

ENI

REPSOL
YPF

PHILLIPS

CONOCO

Hydrocarbons production growth

Carried out
2004

CAGR objective

ExxonMobil

0,3%

3% 2004-2010

Shell

-4,3%

3,5-3,8 Mboe/d
2005-2006

BP

10,8%

5% 2004-2008

ChevronTexaco

-6,1%

3 Mboe/d al 2008

Total

2,1%

4% 2004-2010

ConocoPhillips

-0,6%

5% 2004-2006

Eni

4,0%

>5% 2004-2008

Glossary
Aliphatic: See alkane.
Alkane: Any hydrocarbon molecule with the maximum ratio of hydrogen to carbon.
The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2, where n is 1, 2, 3, etc.
Alkanes: Hydrocarbon molecules with the maximum ratio of hydrogen to carbon.
The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2, where n is 1, 2, 3, etc.
Alkylation: Processes that combine small molecules in pairs to make a larger
molecule; butane alkylation uses strong acid catalysts (sulfuric or hydrofluoric acid)
to combine isobutene with isobutane, producing isooctane.
Alumina: Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3. Exists in a variety of forms, many with high
surface areas. Aluminas are very important catalyst supports and catalyst
components

Glossary
Aromatic: A large family of hydrocarbon compounds based on the benzene
structure. Chemists link the name aromatic to the exceptional stability that derives
from the benzene structure; see Benzene.
Asphaltenes: A class of organic materials defined by their insolubility in pentane or
heptane. Asphaltenes are generally polar molecules, rich in S, N, O, and organically
bound Ni and V. The vast majority of asphaltenes distill at temperatures above about
1000 F (540 C). They are an important component of asphalt.
Boiling Point Range: A convenient way of describing a petroleum fraction is to
measure the lowest and highest temperature at which some of the molecules in the
fraction will distill. See Carbon Number.
Cap Rock: Impervious layer which overlies a reservoir rock preventing hydrocarbons
escaping.

Glossary
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Colourless, odourless, and slightly acid-tasting gas,
sometimes-called carbonic acid gas, molecule of which consists of one atom of
carbon joined to two atoms of oxygen.
Carbon Number: A way of describing the size of hydrocarbons in terms of the total
number of carbons in the molecule. Boiling points of hydrocarbons generally increase
with carbon number.
Casing: Steel lining used to exclude unwanted fluids; control well pressures; support
sides of well bore.
Catalyst: Any substance that changes the rate of a reaction without itself being
changed in the reaction; catalysts can be solids, liquids or gases, and they may be
individual molecules that are dissolved in a liquid containing the reacting molecules.
The most common industrial catalysts are solids used in treating feeds that are
liquids or gases.
Coke: In catalysis, refers to a carbon-rich deposit that can form on the surface,
often blocking access to active sites.

Glossary

Continuous Regeneration System: Any process step that treats catalyst removed
from a reactor to restore its activity (regeneration) and return it to the reactor.
Cracking: A general term covering any of a variety of reactions and processes that
convert high boiling fractions to more valuable lower boiling fractions.
Desulfurization: Any process or process step that results in removal of sulfur from
organic molecules.
Drill Bit: Located at end of drill-string cutting head is generally
designed with three cone-shaped wheels tipped with hardened
teeth.
Drilling Mud/Fluid: Mixture of base substance and additives used
to lubricate drill bit and to counter act natural pressure in
formation. Drilling mud provides circulation, flushing rock cuttings
from bottom of well bore to surface.

Glossary
Endothermic: Reactions that proceed with absorption of enthalpy (heat energy) are
termed endothermic; see exothermic.
Exothermic: Reactions that proceed with release of enthalpy (heat energy) are
termed exothermic; see endothermic.
FCC: Fluid catalytic cracking. A process for converting high boiling gas oils to lighter
liquids, primarily gasoline range naphtha and diesel range gas oils. The most widely
practiced refinery conversion process.
Fixed-Bed Catalyst: Any catalyst used in a reactor where the catalyst fills the
reactor and remains motionless (fixed) and the gas and/or liquid feed mixtures flows
past. The fluid flows through the void spaces between catalyst particles.

Glossary
Fluid-Bed Catalyst: Any catalyst used in a fluidized bed. When gas is allowed to
flow upward through container filled with fine powder at a sufficient velocity, the gassolid mix exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid. Catalysis under these conditions
can be very efficient because of the thorough mixing. At higher gas velocities, the
solids may be carried out of the bed and upward through the container. Such
systems are called transport or riser reactors.
Gas Oil: General term describing any distillable refinery stream boiling above about
350 F. Diesel, turbine, and jet fuels are blended from gas oils. Higher boiling gas
oils are called heavy.
HDN: See Hydrodenitrogenation.
HDS: See Hydrodesulfurization.
Hydrocarbons: Family of organic compounds, composed entirely of carbon and
hydrogen (for example, coal, petroleum and natural gas).

Glossary

Hydrocracking: Process, or family of processes, combining hydrogenation of olefins

and aromatics with catalytic cracking.
Hydrodenitrogenation: Hydrotreating processes that remove nitrogen from feeds;
these are usually also effective for hydrodesulfurization. See Hydrotreating.
Hydrodesulfurization: Hydrotreating processes that remove sulfur from feeds;
these are usually not also effective for hydrodesulfurization. See Hydrotreating.
Hydrotreating Catalysts: Catalysts that operate in an hydrogen environment and
function to remove heteroatoms (S, N, O, Ni, V, etc.) and add hydrogen to olefins
and aromatics.
Isomer: When two molecules have the same elemental composition but different
structures, they are said to be isomers.

Glossary

Isomerization: The process of changing a molecule into one or more of its isomeric
forms. See Isomer.
LCO: Light cycle oil. A fraction of FCC product liquid distilling between about 400 F
and about 700 F.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas: Generally, any light hydrocarbon fuel that must be
compressed to keep it from boiling away. (LPG) Commercial LPG usually contains
mixtures of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10).
Molecular Sieves: Any of a variety of high surface area solids having pores roughly
the size of individual molecules and thus able to adsorb smaller molecules while
excluding larger ones.
MTBE: Methyl-t-butyl ether, an oxygen containing fuel component used in
reformulated gasoline. Commonly made from methanol (methyl alcohol) and
isobutene.

Glossary

Naphtha: Any low boiling refinery stream. Gasoline is made by blending several
virgin and treated naphthas.
Natural Gas: A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbon gases often found in
association with oil. Methane [CH4] is the chief constituent of most natural gas
(constituting as much as 85% of some natural gases).
Octane Number: Measurement of the resistance of gasoline to explosive
preignition, also known as knocking. Reference is to 2,2,4-trimethylpentane
(isooctane) mixtures with n-heptane, with pure isooctane defined as 100.
Olefins: Hydrocarbon molecules containing carbon-carbon double bonds. The name
olefin comes from roots the imply oil former. The general formula for olefins is C nH2n,
where n is 1, 2, 3, etc. Olefins are not found in crude oil, but are formed during
cracking reactions in many refinery processes.

Glossary

Organic: In chemistry, refers to carbon-containing molecules. At one time, chemists

believed incorrectly that such molecules could only be made by living plants and
animals or by doing reactions with such molecules.
Paraffins: Synonym for alkanes. The name paraffin often refers specifically to
alkane molecules (isomers) having long straight chains. These are the constituents of
common candle wax.
Petroleum: A thick, flammable, yellow-to-black mixture of gaseous, liquid, and solid
hydrocarbons that occurs naturally beneath the earth's surface.
Platinum Reforming: Process for increasing the aromatic content of naphtha by
passing the naphtha and hydrogen over a catalyst containing platinum supported on
alumina. See Naphtha, Aromatic.
.

Glossary
Poison (Catalyst): Any molecule or material that tends to collect on a catalyst
surface, blocking access to active sites or destroying their activities
Promoter: Any component added to a catalyst to increase activity or selectivity.
Examples are tin added to platinum reforming catalysts to improve selectivity to coke
formation and chloride added to isomerization catalysts to increase activity.
PSA: Pressure swing adsorption. Technique for separating gases from a mixture
using adsorbents that discriminate by molecular size.
Reactor: Any of a variety of containers for carrying out refining, chemical, or other
similar processes. Often reactors are little more than large tanks, but they can be
very sophisticated, with methods for mixing reactants and controlling temperature.
Reformate: Highly aromatic naphtha made by platinum reforming. See Aromatic,
Platinum Reforming.

Glossary
Reforming: See Platinum Reforming, Steam Reforming.
Regeneration: A general term applying to any process or step that treats are used
catalyst to restore fresh activity. In an FCC Unit, specifically refers to the step where
coke is removed by burning in air.
Reid Vapor Pressure: A specific test measuring the presser of light molecules that
evaporates from gasoline under carefully defined conditions. Gasolines are blended to
have Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) in the range 7 to 10 pounds per square inch, with
variations with season and elevation to allow easy starting without excess air pollution.
Residuum: General term for any refinery fraction that is left behind in a distillation.
Atmospheric residuum, sometimes called long resid or atmospheric tower bottoms
(ATB), is the undistilled fraction in an atmospheric pressure distillation of crude oil.
Likewise, vacuum resid, short resid, or vacuum tower bottoms (VTB), is the undistilled
fraction in a vacuum distillation.

Glossary
Reservoir :Subsurface, porous, permeable rock formation in which hydrocarbons
are present.
Rig: a structure housing equipment used to extract oil from underground oil
reservoirs.
Riser Reactor: The cracking portion of the FCC process, essentially a hundred foot
tall vertical pipe. Oil, hot catalyst, and steam are injected continuously into the
bottom of the riser, and the reaction occurs as the mixture rises to the top.
Residence times in risers are typically one to two seconds. Risers are one of a
general class of transport reactors, where reactions occur in dilute phase as the
feed mixtures pass through a pipe. See Fluid Bed Reactor.
RON: Research octane number. One of two ASTM tests for octane measures RON,
predicting behavior under acceleration at low speed. RON is generally higher than
MON. See Octane Number.
RVP: See Reid Vapor Pressure.

Glossary

Saturated Hydrocarbon: A molecule containing only hydrogen

and carbon and having all olefinic and aromatic double bonds
removed by addition of hydrogen.
Sedimentary rock: Formed by consolidation of deposits formed by
settlement of sand, silt, and other materials.
Selectivity: Many reactions can potentially occur in any real catalyst systems.
Selectivity is the measure of the ability of the catalyst to promote desired reactions
without affecting those that are not desired.
Source rocks: Rocks containing sufficient organic substances to generate
hydrocarbons.
Steam Reforming: Catalytic process for converting a mixture of steam and
hydrocarbon to synthesis gas, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.

Glossary

Structural traps: Formed by Earth movements that fold rocks into suitable shapes
or juxtapose reservoir and sealing rocks along faults. Traps may also form when
rocks are domed over rising salt masses.
Trap: Geological structure in which hydrocarbons build up to from
an oil or gas field.
Tubing: Piping installed in wells for production of oil and gas.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon: Any hydrocarbon containing olefinic or aromatic
structures. See Olefin, Aromatic.
Well: A hole bored or drilled into Earth for purpose of obtaining water, oil or gas, or
other natural resources.
Well bore: Hole in rock made by drill bit.
Well completion: Process by which a finished well is either sealed
off or prepared for production.

Glossary

Wellhead: Control equipment fitted to top of a well casing,

incorporating outlets, valves, etc.
Zeolite: Any of a large family of crystalline metal oxide materials characterized by
the presence of extensive regular interconnected pore systems. Most are based on
mixtures of aluminum and silicon oxides, while others have phosphorous and other
elements as well. See Molecular Sieve.