Data and Computer

Communications

Introduction
Computer Network
A collection of computers that
communicate with one another over
transmission lines.
Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are able to
exchange information.
A system with one control unit and
many slaves is not a network.
Computer Network (Cont.)
Uses of Computer Network
Companies People Social Issues

Resource Sharing Access to remote News-groups

information
Geography Person To Person Bulletin Boards
communication & e-
mail
 
High reliability: Interactive
replication Entertainment
   
Saving money on the flow

   
Client-server model
   
Scalability: Ability to
increase system
performance gradually
as the workload grows.
A Communications Model
Source
Generates data to be transmitted
Transmitter
Converts data into transmittable signals
Transmission system
Carries data
Receiver
Converts received signal into data
Destination
Takes incoming data
Simplified Communications
Model - Diagram
Key Communications
Tasks
Transmission system utilization
Interfacing
Signal generation
Synchronization
Exchange management
Error detection and correction
Addressing and routing
Recovery
Message formatting
Security
Network management
Network Hardware
Transmission Technology
Broadcast Network Point – To – Point Network

Single communication channel that Many connections between

is shared by all the machines on individual pairs of machines
 
the network.

All the others receive “Packets” in A packet may have to visit one
certain contexts, sent by any or more intermediate machine.
 
machine.
 

An address field within the packet Routing algorithms play an

specifies for whom it is intended. important role in PTP networks.
   

 
Multicasting: transmission to a
subnet of the machines.
Simplified Data
Communications Model
Networking
Point to point communication not
usually practical
Devices are too far apart
Large set of devices would need
impractical number of connections
Solution is a communications
network
Simplified Network Model
1. Local Area Networks
Smaller scope
Building or small campus
Usually owned by same
organization as attached devices
Data rates much higher
Usually broadcast systems
Now some switched systems and
ATM are being introduced
Local Area Networks
(Cont.) NETWORKS
LAN MAN WAN INTERNET

LAN CHARACTERISTICS
Size Transmission Technology Topology

Restricted in Single Cable BUS (Ethernet)

Size
10 to 100 Mbps
Ring (Token ring)
Low delay (ms)
 

Very few Errors

Megabits/Sec. (Unit)
2. MAN
Metropolitan Area Network
Support data and voice
No switching elements
Standard: DQDB
(Distributed Queue Dual Bus)
Two unidirectional buses to which all the
computers are connected.
Each bus has a head-end, a device that
initiates transmission activity.
Traffic that is destined for a computer to the
right of the sender uses the upper bus, traffics
to the left uses the lower one.
3. Wide Area Networks
Large geographical area
Crossing public rights of way
Rely in part on common carrier
circuits
Alternative technologies
Circuit switching
Packet switching
Frame relay
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
Wide Area Networks
(Cont.)
Host (end system).
Subnet (communication subnet).
WANs typically have irregular
topologies.
WAN CONSISTS OF

Transmission Lines:- Circuits, Switching Elements:-

Channels or Tanks Specialized computers used to
connect two or more
 
transmission lines.
Subnet (ISP) the collection of routers and
communication lines that moved packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Criteria for Comparing
WANs
Criteria Category Criteria Description
Cost Initial Setup Transmission line; equipment 
Operational setup feeds, including labor and 
Fees for leases of lines and 
training costs
Maintenance equipment; ISP and other service 
Periodic maintenance costs; 
Performance Speed fees; ongoing training
problem diagnosis and repair 
Line and equipment speed
Latency costs; mandatory upgrade costs
Delays during busy periods
Availability Frequency of service outage
Criteria Category Criteria Description
Performance Loss rate Frequency retransmission 
required
Transparenc User involvement in operation
yPerformance Vendors agree to cost penalties 
Other guarantees
Growth  if levels of service not met
How difficult to upgrade when 
potential
Commitment  service needs or capacity 
Length of leases and other 
Management increase?
periods agreements
How much management 
time
Risk,  activity is required?
How much is at stake if system 
Financial
Technical not effective?
If using new technology, what 
is the likelihood of failure?
4. Internet
Collection of interconnected
networks.
Example: A collection of LAN’s
connected by a WAN.
WAN : (router + hosts).
SUBNET : (only routers).
Circuit Switching
Dedicated communications path
established for the duration of the
conversation
E.G. Telephone network
Packet Switching
Data sent out of sequence
Small chunks (packets) of data at a
time
Packets passed from node to node
between source and destination
Used for terminal to computer and
computer to computer
communications
Frame Relay
Packet switching systems have
large overheads to compensate for
errors
Modern systems are more reliable
Errors can be caught in end system
Most overhead for error control is
stripped out
Asynchronous Transfer
Mode
ATM (cell relay)
Evolution of frame relay
Little overhead for error control
Fixed packet (called cell) length
Anything from 10mbps to Gbps
Constant data rate using packet
switching technique
Offers a constant data rate channel
Integrated Services Digital
Network
ISDN
Designed to replace public telecom system
Wide variety of services
Entirely digital domain
First generation ( narrowband ISDN )
64 kbps channel is the basic unit
Circuit-switching orientation
Contributed to frame relay
Second generation ( broadband ISDN )
100s of mbps
Packet-switching orientation
Contributed to ATM ( cell relay )
Protocols
Used for communications between
entities in a system
Must speak the same language
Entities
User applications
E-mail facilities
Terminals
Systems
Computer
Terminal
Remote sensor
Protocol Hierarchies
Organized as a series of layers or levels.
The purpose of each layer is to offer certain
services to the higher layers.
Layer n on one-machine carries on a
conversation with layer n on another
machine.
Protocol: is an agreement between the
communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.
Peers communicate using the protocol.
In reality, no data directly transferred from
layer n on one machine to layer n on another
 Protocol Hierarchies (Cont.)
Each layer passes data and control
information to the layer immediately below
it.
Between each pair of adjacent layers there is
an “interface”.
The design of layers helps in:
Minimizing the amount of information that must
be passed between layers
Make it simpler to reduce the implementation of
one layer with a completely different one
Protocol stack:
 A list of protocol used by a certain system,
one protocol per layer.
Key Elements of a Protocol
Syntax
Data formats
Signal levels
Semantics
Control information
Error handling
Timing
Speed matching
Sequencing
Design Issues for the Layers
Addressing.
Data transfer.
Simplex communication.
Half-duplex communication.
Full-duplex communication.
Number and priorities of the logical connection
channels. Many networks provide at least two
logical channels per connection, one for
normal data and one for urgent data.
Error control.
Error detecting code.
Error correcting code.
Design Issues (Cont.)
How to receive data in order
(sequence no.).
How to keep a fast sender from
swamping a slow receiver with data
(flow control).
Size of the message: disassembling
>transmitting >reassembling
messages.
Routing: multiple paths between
source and destination.
Protocol Architecture
Task of communication broken up
into modules
For example file transfer could use
three modules
File transfer application
Communication service module
Network access module

Simplified File Transfer
Architecture
A Three Layer Model
Network access layer
Transport layer
Application layer
Network Access Layer
Exchange of data between the
computer and the network
Sending computer provides address
of destination
May invoke levels of service
Dependent on type of network used
(LAN, packet switched etc.)
Transport Layer
Reliable data exchange
Independent of network being used
Independent of application
Application Layer
Support for different user
applications
e.g. e-mail, file transfer
Interfaces and Services
Active elements in each layer are called
ENTITIES.
Entity.
Software [example: process.].
Hardware [example: intelligent I/O chip.].
The entities in layer n implement a service
used by layer n+1.
Layer n called service provider.
Layer n + 1 called service user.
Services are available at sap’s (service access
points).
Each SAP has an address that uniquely
Interfaces and Services (Cont.)
IDU: interface data unit.
ICI: interface control info.
SDU: service data unit.
At a typical interface, the layer n + 1 entity
passes an IDU to the layer n entity through the
SAP.
In order to transfer the SDU, the layer n entity
may have to fragment it into several pieces,
each of which is given a header and send to as
a separate PDU (protocol data unit) such as a
packet.

Addressing Requirements
Two levels of addressing required
Each computer needs unique
network address
Each application on a (multi-
tasking) computer needs a unique
address within the computer
The service access point or SAP
Protocol Architectures and
Networks
Protocols in Simplified
Architecture
Protocol Data Units (PDU)
At each layer, protocols are used to
communicate
Control information is added to user data
at each layer
Transport layer may fragment user data
Each fragment has a transport header
added
Destination SAP
Sequence number
Error detection code
This gives a transport protocol data unit
Network PDU
Adds network header
Network address for destination
computer
Facilities requests

 SERV ICES
Connection Oriented Connectionless

Modeled after the telephone system Modeled after posted system

 
Establish a connection
Use the Connection
Release the connection
Acts like a tube: receive data by the Messages could be received in
same order was sent different order than it was sent with

Reliable connection oriented service Unreliable connectionless service

(not acknowledged)
 
Request reply service
Sender transmits a single datagram
containing a request, the reply
contains the answer.
Used to implement communication
in the client-server model.
Operation of a Protocol
Architecture
Service Primitives
A service is formally specified by a set of
primitives (operations) available to a user or
other entity to access the service.
Primitive tells the service to
Perform some action OR
Report an action by a peer entity.
Example: Connection oriented service with 8
service primitives.
CONNECT.request – Request a connection to be
established.
CONNECT.indication – Signal the called party.

Example (Cont.)
CONNECT.response – Used by the caller to
accept/reject calls.
CONNECT.confirm – Tell the caller whether the call
was accepted.
DATA.request – Request the data be sent.
DATA.indication – Signal the arrival of data.
DISCONNECT.request – Request that a connection
be released.
DISCONNECT.indication – Signal the peer about the
request.
Service Could be.
• Confirmed (Example: CONNECT).
• Unconfirmed (Example: DISCONNECT).
Relationship of Services to
Protocols
Service: is a set of primitives (operations) that
a layer provides to the layer above it.
Protocol.
A set of rules governing the format and meaning of
the frames, packets, or messages that are
exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.
Entities use protocols in order to implement their
service definitions.
Entities are free to change their protocols, provided
they do not change the service visible to their
users. REFERENCE MODELS
OSI References Model TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Protocol
Architecture
Developed by the US defense advanced
research project agency (DARPA) for its
packet switched network (ARPANET).
Used by the global internet.
No official model but a working one.
Application layer.
Host to host or transport layer.
Internet layer.
Network access layer.
Physical layer.
Physical Layer
Physical interface between data
transmission device (e.G.
Computer) and transmission
medium or network
Characteristics of transmission
medium
Signal levels
Data rates
Etc.
Network Access Layer
Exchange of data between end
system and network
Destination address provision
Invoking services like priority
Internet Layer (IP)
Systems may be attached to
different networks
Routing functions across multiple
networks
Implemented in end systems and
routers
Transport Layer (TCP)
Reliable delivery of data
Ordering of delivery

Applicat ion Layer

Support for user applicat ions
e.g. ht t p, SMPT
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Model
OSI Model
Open systems interconnection
Developed by the international
organization for standardization
(ISO)
Seven layers
A theoretical system delivered too
late!
TCP/IP is the de facto standard
OSI References Model
International Standards
Organization.
OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection).
Reference model: deals with
connecting open systems that are;
Open for communication with
other systems.
Principles
A layer should be created where a different
level of abstraction is needed.
Each layer should perform a well-defined
function.
The function of each layer should be chosen
with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
The layer boundaries should be chosen to
minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
The number of layers should be large enough
that distinct functions need not be thrown
OSI Layers
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data link
Physical
The Physical Layer
Deals with transmitting raw bits
over a communication channel.
How many volts for 1 or 0.
How many microseconds a bit lasts.
Mechanics, electrical and
procedural interfaces.
Data link Layer
Break the input data up into data frames.
Process the acknowledgement frames sent
back by the receiver.
Insert the frame delimiter.
Solve the problems caused by damaged, lost
and duplicate frames.
Flow control.
Full duplex transmission (piggybacking)
Medium access sub layer deals with how to
control access to the shared channel in
broadcast networks.
Network Layer
Routing packets from source to
destination.
Routes can be static or dynamic
Bottleneck, congestion
Connect heterogeneous networks
(different addressing method, larger
packet service).
In broadcast networks, routing
problem is simple, so the network
Transport Layer
Accept data from the session layer, split it up
into smaller units if needed, pass these to the
network layer and ensure that the all pieces
arrive correctly at the other end
Under normal conditions, the transport layer
creates a distinct network connection for each
transport connection required by the session
layer
If the transport connection requires a high
throughput, the transport layer might create
multiple network connections, dividing the
data among the network connections to
improve throughput
Transport Layer (Cont.)
Transport layer determines what type of
service to provide the session layer with and
ultimately, the users of the entire network
The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer,
from source to destination
Multiple connections will be entering and
leaving each host. There is a need to tell
which message belongs to which connection
(transport header)
Establishing and deleting connections across
the network
Flow control between hosts (as oppose
between routers) so fast host cannot overrun
Session Layer
Allows users on different machines to
establish sessions between them
A session might be used to allow a user to log
into a remote timesharing system or to
transfer a file between two machines
Example: token management. Only the side
holding the token may perform the critical
operation.
Synchronization: insert a checkpoint.
Example: sending file for 20 hours. After a crash
the portion after the checkpoint will be resend
again.
Presentation Layer
Concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information
transmitted.
A typical example of a presentation
service is encoding data in a
standard agreed upon way.
[Character strings, integers,
floating-point numbers…].
Application Layer
The application layer contains a variety of
protocols that are commonly needed.
Example: incompatible terminal type.
One way to solve this problem is to define
an abstract network virtual terminal that
editor can be written to deal with. To handle
each terminal type, a piece of s/w must be
written to map the functions of the network
virtual terminal onto the real terminal.
Other application is file transfer(ftp).
TCP/IP and OSI Protocol
Architectures
OSI Model vs. TCP/IP
Model OSI TCP/IP

Developer ISO DARPA

Planning Model first (Proactive) Protocol first (Reactive)

Layers 7 4

Strength Widely used to classify Interoperable, widely used

protocol stacks protocol implementation
Weakness No widely accepted protocol Model fits no other protocol
implementation stack

73
Critique of the OSI Model and
Protocols
1. Bad t im ing :
The com pet ing TCP/IP prot ocols were
already in widespread use by research
universit ies by t he t im e t he OSI prot ocols
appeared
2. Bad Technology:
The m odel is ext raordinarily com plex;
Addressing, flow cont rol, and error
cont rol,
reappear again and again in each layer
are unnecessary and inefficient .
3. Bad Implementations
 The initial implementations were
huge, unwieldy, and slow because
the model and the protocols are
complex;
 Bad image;
4. Bad Politics

 thought to be the creature of the

European telecommunication
ministries, the European Community,
and later the U.S. Government
Critique of the TCP/IP Model
and Protocols
First, does not clearly distinguish
the concepts of service, interface,
and protocol;
Second, is not at all general and is
poorly suited to describing any
protocol stack other than TCP/IP
Critique of the TCP/IP
Model and Protocols
cont…
Third, is not really a layer but an
interface
Fourth, does not distinguish (or
even mention) the physical and
data link layers
Example Of Networks
Novell NETWARE.
Client-server model.
IPX/SPX.
Network layer runs IPX (internet packet
exchange).
IPX uses 10 byte address (IP uses 4 bytes) flat
addressing.
Transport protocol.
• NCP (network core protocol).
• Transport service & other services.
• SPX (sequenced packet exchange):
• Just transport service.
Example Of Networks
(Cont.)
The application can choose between NCP &
SPX
Transport control field counts how many networks
the packet has traversed.
About once a minute, each server broadcasts a
packet giving its address and telling what services
it offers.
SAP (Service Advertising Protocol) is used for
broadcasting
Routers run some kind of special agent processes
to construct databases of which servers are
running.
When a client is booted, it sends a request for a
server. The agent on the local router machine
Example Of Networks
(Cont.)
The APRANET.
Packet switched network, consisting of subnet and
host computers.
IMPS (interface message processors) connected by
transmission lines.
Each IMP would be connected to at least two other
imps.
Each node consists of IMP and a host.
Host sends messages of up to 8063 bits to its IMP.
IMP breaks the message into packets of at most 1008
bits and forwards them independently toward the
destination.
56-kbps lines leased from telephone companies
interconnect the IMPS.
By 1990, the ARPANET had been overtaken by newer
Example Of Networks
(Cont.)
NSFNET
By 1984 NSF Fig 1.26(the U.S. national
science Foundation) began designing a
high-speed successor to the ARPANET that
would be open to all university research
groups.
By 1995 the NSFNET backbone was no
longer needed to interconnect the NSF
regional networks because numerous
companies were running commercial IP
Networks.
Example Of Networks
(Cont.)
The Internet.
 In 1992, the internet society was
set up, to promote the use of the
internet.
Four main applications.
Email.
News.
Remote login: telnet, rlogin.
File transfer: FTP.
Example Of Networks
(Cont.)
Gigabit TESTBEDS.
The backbones operate at megabit speeds.
Gigabit networks provide better bandwidth but not
always much better delay.
Example: sending a 1-kbit packet from NYC to san
Francisco at (1 mbps) take.
1 msec to pump the bits out and 20 msec for the
delay, for a total of 21 msec. A 1-Gbps network
can reduce this to 20.001 msec.
For some applications, bandwidth is what counts,
and these are the applications for which gigabit
networks will make a big difference.
Examples:- telemedicine & virtual meeting.
Example Data
Communication
Services
SMDS
X.25
FRAME RELAY
BROADBAND ISDN AND ATM
Write a paper, regarding:
Topology of Networks
Transmission Media (wired and
wireless)
How does encryption work?
What is the purpose of Firewall?
What is a VPN, Why is it so
important?
USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Suppose you manage a group of seven employees in a
small business. Each of your employees wants to be
connected to the internet. Consider two alternatives:
Alt A: Each employee has his own modem and
connects individually to the internet
Alt B: The employees’ computers are connected
using a LAN and the network uses a single modem to
connect
c) Sketch the equipment and lines required for each
alternative.
d)Explain in the actions you need to take to create
each alternative
e) Compare the alternatives using the criteria for
comparing WANs
f) Which of these two alternatives do you
recommend?
Consider the situation of a company that has two offices
at physically separated sites. Suppose each office has a
group of 15 computers.
a. If the two offices are retail art galleries, what is likely to be the
most common type of interoffice communication? Given
your answer, what type of WAN do you think is most
appropriate?
b. Suppose the two offices are manufacturing sites that
communicate via email and that regularly exchange large
drawings and plans. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each of the four WAN types for these
offices? Under what circumstances would you recommend
a leased-line WAN?
c. Suppose the two offices are the same as described in part b,
but that in addition each has salespeople on the road who
need to connect to the office computers. How would your
answer to part b change?
d. Would you change your answer to part c if both offices are
located in the same building? Why or why not?
e. What additional factors would you need to consider if one of
the offices in part c was in Los Angeles and the other was
located in Singapore?