Electrical Machines

Electrical machines are used to convert energy from one

form to another form.
The magnetic materials are used for the construction of
electrical machines. Therefore, it is important to understand
the magnetic materials and their application (i.e. magnetic
circuits and air gap) used in electrical machines.
Benefits of using magnetic materials in the electrical
machines are, to obtain high flux density which gives large
output and efficiency, also reduced the size of the machine.

Current
The rate of change of charge is known as current, and denoted
by Ior i and the expression is I=dq/dt. The current flows in
the closed circuit in the presence of electromotive force (emf). It
is the potential for the source in the circuit.
Magnet and Magnetism
Magnet is the property of material that can attract or repel any other iron
material. The magnet contains the north and south poles.
Magnetism is the amount of force that is created by electric current or the
amount of motion of electrons in the atom. Fundamental magnetic moments
of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field. The magnetic moment
may be considered to be a vector having a magnitude and direction.

Magnetic Field and Flux

Consider a current is flowing in a current carrying
conductor from A to B as shown in figure.
Due to this current, a force around the conductor is
induced that is called magnet. The force around the
magnet where it acts called magnetic field.

The amount of magnetic lines passing through the area near

the magnet is called the magnetic flux. The magnetic flux can
also be defined as the product of magnetic flux density and
the perpendicular area that it penetrates, it is denoted by,
= BA Wb

Magnetic Flux Density and Field Intensity

It is the ratio of magnetic flux per unit area and expressed as,
B= /A, b/m2

Consider a unit pole of a magnet which contains the flux 1b.

Also imagine a sphere of radius r meters, which is shown in
figure. The surface area of sphere is,
A= 4r2
The magnetic flux density becomes,
B= (1/4r2)
The magneto-motive force is the product of current and the
number of turns of the coil. Mathematically,

= (NI)
The magneto-motive force per unit length is known as
magnetic field intensity and is expressed as,
H= (Ni/l) At/m

Relative Permeability
Permeability offers conductivity for the flux.
Relative Permeability is the ratio of permeability of any material () to the
permeability of the free space (o). Expression for Relative Permeability is
r = /o , (Permeability of non-magnetic material is 1).

Relationship between B H
Magnetic flux density (B) developed in a magnetic field is directly
proportional to the amount of applied magnetic field intensity (H) is,

B HB = *H, ( is absolute permeability of the material).

B = r*o*(H)

Practice Problems
1. The mean circumference of a wooden ring is 0.6m and the uniform
cross sectional area is 0.005 m2. The wooden ring is wound by 200
turns and carries a current of 5A. Determine the (a) magnetic field
intensity, (b) magnetic flux density and (c) total flux.
2. The mean circumference of a wooden ring is 800mm and the uniform
cross sectional area is 600mm2. The wooden ring wound by 400 turns
and carries a current of 8A. Determine the (a) magnetic field intensity,
(b) magnetic flux density and (c) total flux.

It is property of a magnetic material to oppose the development of magnetic

flux in a magnetic circuit. It can also be defined as the ratio of
magnetomotive force to the flux through any cross section of a magnetic
circuit. it can be expressed,
= / At/b
PERMEANCE
A measure of the ability of a magnetic circuit to conduct magnetic flux; the re
ciprocal of reluctance.
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux to the magnetomotive force through
any cross section of the magnetic circuit. Mathematically, it can be written
as,
P = / b/At
Practice Problems:
A current of 4A is flowing through a wire which consists of 9 turns.
The flux around the wire is 0.06wb. Determine the (a)
magnetomotive force and (b) reluctance of the circuit.
The magnetomotive force of a coil is 54At when carries a current
of 6A. Determine the number of turns of the coil & the reluctance
of the circuit if the flux is 0.07 wb.

Amperes Circuital Law

The line integral of the magnetic field intensity around a closed
path is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through the area
enclosed by the path see Figure.
Where N number of conductors carrying current which is
entering in to the paper, product NI is called the magnetomotive
force at a distance r, and mathematically can be represent as,

NI

NI

R
Hr

Magnetic Flux Density in a Toroidial Coil

Torodal coil (A toroid is a coil of insulated or enameled wire wound on a
donut-shaped form made of powdered iron) is wrapped up with N number
of turns having a current of I ampere (see figure). For calculation consider
R>>> r. Therefore mean length of the coil is,

l = 2R

According to Amperes law it becomes, H*= NI, insert the value of , we

get, H = NI/2r
The magnetic flux density, B = *H=NI/2r
Magnetic flux can be expressed as,
= BA (cross-sectional area of core is(r2)
= NIr2/2R

Practice Problems:
A 15A current is flowing through a straight wire conductor. The conductor is
surrounded by air and is wound by 10 turns. Find the magnetic flux density
at a distance of 1.5cm from the conductor.
A long straight wire of 15 turns carries a current of 20A. The conductor is
surrounded by air. Find the magnetic field intensity and flux density at a
distance of 0.2m from the wire.
A wooden torodial coil is wound by 200 turns and having the inner diameter
of 7cm and the outer diameter of 10cm. The cross-sectional area is
0.005m2. If the current 5A flows through the coil, find the (a) magnetic field
strength, (b) flux density, and (c) flux.
A wooden torodial coil is wound by 200 turns and having the mean length
of 500mm. The cross-sectional area is 0.0008m2. If the current of 2A flows
through the coil, find the (a) magnetic field strength, (b) flux density, and (c)
flux.

Magnetic Circuits
It is a closed path followed by the magnetic flux.The magnetic circuit is divided into
two types.
Series Magnetic Circuit:
The Magnetic circuit in which, same flux can flow through it, as shown in figure
(may contain different material).
Where, l1 and l2 mean length of two materials, A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional area
of two materials and 1 and u2 are the absolute permeability of two materials.
Current flowing through the left section of the core having N turns is I. Magnetic
circuit and their equivalent circuit shown in figure.
NI= H1l1 + H2l2
NI = +
NI= +
=1 + 2 = (1 + 2)
=

Practice Problems:
The dimension of the magnetic circuits shown in the figure. The relative
permeability of a magnetic material is 750. Calculate the field intensity.
Determine the magnetic flux of the magnetic circuit as shown in figure. The
dimensions of the length, width and height are 0.3m, 0.02m and 0.3m
respectively. The relative permeability of a magnetic material is 1100.

Parallel Magnetic Circuit

Total flux is divided into two or more sections (see figure). The
magnetomotive force is connected to the left side and induced the flux
and this flux is divided into 1 and 2 for the mid and right section of the
core. The magnetic field intensity for left, right and middle are H, H1, and H2
and length are l1 and l1.
The magnetic potential drop
around
the equivalent circuit is,
F-Hl = H1l1= H2l2
Total flux is, = 1 + 2
As we know,

Hl = R

Using above equations, magnomotive force

can be written in form of,
- R= R11= R22
= R+ R11= R+R22
Total Reluctance, R= R1 R2 / (R1+ R2)

Practice Problems:
The cross sectional area of a magnetic structure as shown in the figure is
5m2. The left limb is wound by 350 turns and the flux in the right limb is 4Wb.
Determine the current. Assume the relative permeability is 300.
The cross sectional area of a magnetic structure is 6cm 2. The left limb is
wound by N turns and the flux in the right limb is 4mWb. Determine N if the
3A current flows in the coil. Assume the relative permeability is 550.

Comparison b/w Magnetic and Electric Circuits

The flux moves in magnetic circuits and current moves in electric circuit.
The flux is defined as magnetomotive force per reluctance and current is
defined as voltage per resistance.
The magnetic flux density is defined as the flux per area. The electric current
density is defined as the current per area.
The magnetomotive force is equal to the product of flux and reluctance. The
voltage is equal to the product of current and circuit resistance.
The magnetic circuit reluctance is defined as R= l/A. The electrical circuit
resistance is defined as R= (l/A).
The magnetic field intensity is defined as H=/l and the electric field intensity
is defined as E= V/d

Air Gap in Magnetic Circuits

The gap between two parts of magnetic bar is called Air Gap. This gap is
filled by non magnetic material. In machines, rotor moves freely inside the
stator through a small air gap.
Generally, fluxes cross directly from one bar to other bar at the middle of the
air gap, whereas at the edges of an air gap flux bends outward and thereby
increasing the effective area of the gap which reduces the magnetic flux
density. This reduction process is known as fringing as shown in figure. The
fringing will be greater for longer air gap.

Calculation of Magnetic Circuits with Air Gap

Consider the mean length, permeability, cross sectional area of the core are
lc, and Ac and for air gap lag, ag and Aag respectively. In the composite
circuit, the core and the air gap connected in series. As a result same flux
will flow through the core and air gap and equivalent circuit can be
considered as series circuit as shown in figure l.
Magnetic flux densities for the core & air gap are,
Bc= c/Ac & Bag = ag /Aag,
Total magneto-motive force,
t = c+ ag = Hclc+ Haglag
t = Rt

where, Rt = Rc+ Rag

If the permeability is very high than the

reluctance of the core is very small and it can be
neglected. Therefore, total magneto-motive force
is, ag = Rag

Practice Problems
The mean length cross sectional area and the air gap length of a iron ring
are 35cm, 15cm2 and 0.6 mm respectively. The ring wound by 400 turns and
carries a current of 2A, which produces 2.5mWb flux. Determine the
reluctance and the relative permeability of the iron ring.
The cross sectional area of a magnetic structure is 2cm 2 and is wound by
200 turns. The core is made up of iron and the relative permeability of the
core is 4000. Determine the current flowing through the coil if the total flux of
the circuit is 2.5mWb.
The mean length cross sectional area and the air gap length of a iron ring
are 55cm, 25cm2 and 0.8 mm respectively. The ring wound by 1200 turns and
carries a current of 2A, which produces 6.5mWb flux. Determine the
reluctance and the relative permeability of the iron ring.
The cross sectional area of a magnetic structure is 2.5cm 2 and is wound by
1000 turns. The core is made up of iron and the relative permeability of the
core is 4000. Determine the current flowing through the coil if the total flux of
the circuit is 3.5mWb.

Electromagnetic Force on a Conductor

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it
experiences a force, known as electromagnetic force or Lorentz force.
F = BlI, Where,
B, is the magnetic flux density, l is the length of the conductor in meter and
I, is the current flowing through the conductor. The force is greater if the
length of the conductor increases.
Practice Problems
The conductor carries a current of 150A. The length of the conductor is 2m
and is placed in a magnetic field whose magnetic flux density is 0.35T.
Determine the force.
The magnetic force of a 3m conductor is 200N.The magnetic flux density
of the conductor is 0.5T. Determine the magnitude of the current.

If two conductors carrying currents in same direction, the fluxes are in

opposite direction in common region (see figure 1). The total reduction in
flux showed the force of attraction.
However, if the conductors carrying current in opposite direction the net flux is
increased, which indicates the force of repulsion (see figure 2).
Consider figure 2,

Where d distance b/w two conductors,

Conductors carrying currents I1 and I2 respectively, the flux density at
the conductor 1 due to conductor 2 is
B = oI1/2d
If the length of the conductor is l then force either attraction or repulsion
is,

F = BlI2

Finally,

F = oI1I2/2d

Magnetic Material and B-H Curve

Ferromagnetic materials: Materials whose permeability thousands times
greater than free space i.e. iron, nickel, steel and cobalt.
Diamagnetic materials: Materials whose permeability less than free space
i.e. copper, gold and silver.
Paramagnetic materials: Materials have permeability slightly greater than
free space i.e. magnesium, molybdenum, and lithium.

B-H Curve
The value of permeability for air and other non magnetic materials are
constant with the variation of magnetic field intensity. But the permeability of
ferromagnetic materials varies with magnetic field intensity.
Therefore, it is important to plot the curve b/w the magnetic flux density and
magnetic field intensity. In this curve, the magnetic flux density varies with
the variation of magnetic field intensity. This curve is known B-H curve as
shown in figure.

Inductance
It is the property of coil that opposes any change of current flowing through
the coil itself. If a coil having suitable number of turns is connected across
the source, current will flow through it. The flux will be associated due to this
current. Therefore, inductance is defined as the flux linkage per unit current.
L= /I , The unit of inductance is Henry and the symbol is,

Consider a magnetic circuit as shown in figure, the length of the core is l

which contain N number of turns and the cross sectional area is A. The
coil carries a current of i which creates the flux b in the core.
According to electromagnetic induction law, the voltage induced across
the coil can be written as,
v = N (d/dt) = N [(d/di) (di/d)].
As we know, L = N (d/dt) & flux is,
= /R = NAi /l d/dt = NA /l
Final expression of inductance, L = N2/R

Hysteresis Loop
It is a loop that obtained by variation of magnetic flux density with magnetic
field intensity. Consider a un-magnetized core to obtained this loop. The
relationship of magnetic field intensity, H*l = NI/l
For zero value of current, H=0 and the curve current will start from the origin
of axes. By increasing the value of current the value field intensity also
increased accordingly. H*l = NI/l
Retentivity
(OC)
Coercive
force(OD)

Coercive
force(OC`)

The new value of magnetic field intensity at point a is Ha (see figure). Again,
increase the value of current until the magnetic field intensity to reach at the
saturation point and at this point the value of magnetic field intensity is Hb.
Further, increase in current the magnetic field intensity will be increased and
the magnitude of magnetic flux density will be same. It means magnetic
material has been reached to its saturation region.

In the reverse way, if the magnetic field intensity decreases slowly, the
magnetic flux density will also decrease. This decreasing value of magnetic
field intensity and magnetic flux density are greater than the previous values
and the curve will moves by the other path. There will be some magnetic
flux density remaining if the magnetic flux intensity reduced to zero. It
means that the core sustained some flux density (OC). This remaining part
of the magnetic flux density is known as retentivity of the material.

Again, further increase in magnetic field intensity in the reverse direction

then the magnetic flux density will be finished at point D. This value OD is
necessary to demagnetize the magnetic material. This amount of magnetic
field intensity is known as coercive force. The path will continue up to the
point E if we increase the magnetic field intensity.
If we magnetize the core in the same direction, the magnetic field density
will developed in the opposite direction and it will continue to increase for
getting the point C` with increase in the magnetic field intensity. The
magnitude of OC` is known as reverse retentivity. The complete hysteresis
curve will be obtained if we continue the other steps.

Core Losses
There are two types of losses in the magnetic field known as hysteresis and
eddy current losses, and combination of these two losses known as core
losses.
Hysteresis Losses:
Consider a coil as shown in figure having N number of turns and carries I
ampere of current. The hysteresis loss can be calculated at any time as,
The hysteresis loss in the magnetic
field at any time can be calculated
from B-H curve as shown in figure,
W = pdt

,,

W = vidt = (Ni) d

W = (Ni) d ------ (1)

d= (A) dB,

But, = BA,

The current is, i= (Hl)/N, putting all values in equation (1)

W = Vcvol H dB
Where, Vcvol = lA is the volume of the core. The energy density per unit
volume is,

Wv = H dB

The hysteresis loss in the core over one cycle is,

Ph= Vcvol Wh f

As understood, magnetic materials in the electrical machines varies in the

following way,
Area under B-H curve is,
A= KBnm
In general, the hysteresis loss can be expressed as, Ph= KhVcvol Bnm f
Where kh, depend on the properties of the magnetic material and volume of
the core. The value of the constant n varies b/w 1.5 to 2.5.

Eddy Current Loss

The core of the machine normally offers conductive path for the time
varying flux. This time varying flux induces a voltage in the body of the
core. As a result of this voltage, a small magnitude of current will flow
through the core. This current is known as eddy current. The power loss
due to this current is known as eddy current loss. The eddy current loss
can be expressed as,

Pe= KeVcvol t2B2m f2

here t is the thickness of the lamination.