Image Classification

Image Classification
The process of sorting pixels into a finite number of
individual classes, or categories of data, based on
their spectral response (the measured brightness of
a pixel across the image bands, as reflected by the
pixels spectral signature).

Spectral Signatures

Image Classification
The underlying assumption of image classification is
that spectral response of a particular feature (i.e.,
land-cover class) will be relatively consistent
throughout the image.

General Approaches to Image Classification

1.

Unsupervised

2.

Supervised

Unsupervised Classification

Unsupervised classification (a.k.a., clustering)

identifies groups of pixels that exhibit a similar
spectral response
These spectral classes are then assigned
meaning by the analyst (e.g., assigned to landcover categories)

Supervised Classification

Supervised classification uses image pixels

representing regions of known, homogenous surface
composition -- training areas -- to classify unknown
pixels.

Unsupervised vs. Supervised Classification

Unsupervised: bulk of analysts work comes after
the classification process
Supervised: bulk of analysts work comes before the
classification process

Advantages and Disadvantages of Unsupervised

Classification?

Advantages

No prior knowledge of the image area is required

Human error is minimized

Unique spectral classes are produced

Relatively fast and easy to perform

Disadvantages of Unsupervised Classification

Spectral classes do not represent features on the

ground

Does not consider spatial relationships in the data

Can be very time consuming to interpret spectral

classes

Spectral properties vary over time, across images

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Process of Unsupervised Classification

1.

Determine a general classification scheme

2.

Assign pixels to spectral classes (ISODATA)

3.

Assign spectral classes to informational classes

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Process of Unsupervised Classification

1.

Determine a general classification scheme

Depends upon the purpose of the classification
With unsupervised classification, the scheme
does not need to be very specific

2.

Assign pixels to spectral classes (ISODATA)

3.

Assign spectral classes to informational classes

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Process of Unsupervised Classification

1.

Determine a general classification scheme

2.

Assign pixels to spectral classes (ISODATA)

Group pixels into groups of similar values
based on pixel value relationships in multidimensional feature space (clustering)
Iterative ISODATA technique is the most
common

3.

Assign spectral classes to informational classes

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Feature Space
Multi-dimensional relationship of the pixel values
of multiple image bands across the radiometric
range of the image
Allows software to examine the statistical
relationship between image bands

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Feature Space Plot

Feature space images represent

two-dimensional plots of pixel
values in two image bands (with
8-bit data, in a 255 by 255
feature space)

The greater the frequency of

unique pairs of values, the
brighter the feature space

Distribution of pixels within the

spectral space at bright
locations, correspond with
important land-cover types

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ISODATA
Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis
Technique
Uses spectral distance between image pixels in
feature space to classify pixels into a specified
number of unique spectral groups (or clusters)

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ISODATA Parameters & Guidelines

Number of clusters: 10 to 15
per desired land cover class

Convergence threshold:
percentage of pixels whose
class values should not
change between iterations;
generally set to 95%

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ISODATA Parameters & Guidelines

A convergence threshold of
95% indicates that
processing will cease as soon
as 95% or more of the pixels
stay the same from one
iteration to the next (or 5%
or fewer pixels change)
Processing stops when the #
of iterations or convergence
threshold is reached
(whichever comes first)
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ISODATA Parameters & Guidelines

Maximum number of
iterations: ideally, the
convergence threshold
should be reached

Should set reasonable

parameters so that
convergence is reached
before iterations run out

19

ISODATA

a) ISODATA initial distribution

of five hypothetical mean
vectors using +/- 1 standard
deviation in both bands as
beginning and ending points.

20

ISODATA

b) In the first iteration, each

candidate pixel is compared to
each cluster mean and
assigned to the cluster whose
mean is closest

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ISODATA

c) During the second iteration, a

new mean is calculated for each
cluster based on the actual
spectral locations of the pixels
assigned to each cluster.
After the new cluster mean
vectors are selected, every pixel
in the scene is assigned to one of
the new clusters

22

ISODATA

d) This split-merge-assign
process continues until there
is little change in class
assignment between iterations
(the threshold is reached) or
the maximum number of
iterations is reached

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ISODATA

ISODATA iterations;
pixels assigned to
clusters with closest
spectral mean; mean
recalculated; pixels
reassigned

Continues until
maximum iterations
or convergence
threshold reached

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Process of Unsupervised Classification

1.

Determine a general classification scheme

2.

Assign pixels to spectral classes (ISODATA)

3.

Assign spectral classes to informational classes

Once the spectral clusters in the image are

identified, the analyst must assign them to the
informational classes of the classification
scheme (i.e., land cover)

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Spectral to Informational Classes

26

Spectral to Informational Classes

27

Example: Image to be Classified

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Example: Image to be Classified

Multiple clusters
likely represent a
single type of
feature on the
ground.
Someone needs to
assign a landcover
class to all of these
clusters; can be
difficult and time
consuming.

29

General Approaches to Image Classification

1.

Unsupervised

2.

Supervised

30

Supervised Classification
Supervised classification uses image pixels
representing regions of known, homogenous surface
composition -- training areas -- to classify unknown
pixels.

31

Supervised Classification
The underlying assumption is that spectral response
of a particular feature (i.e., land-cover class) will be
relatively consistent throughout the image.

32

Advantages

Generates informational classes representing

features on the ground

Training areas are reusable (assuming they do not

change; e.g. roads)

33

Disadvantages

Information classes may not match spectral classes

(e.g., a supervised classification of forest may mask

the unique spectral properties of pine and oak stands
that comprise that forest)

Homogeneity of information classes varies

Difficulty and cost of selecting training sites

Training areas may not encompass unique spectral

classes

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Process of Supervised Classification

1.

Determine a classification scheme

2.

Create training areas

3.

Generate training area signatures

4.

Evaluate and refine signatures

5.

Assign pixels to classes using a classifier (a.k.a.,

decision rule)

35

1 | Determine Classification Scheme

Depends upon the purpose of the classification
Make the scheme as specific as resources and
available reference data allow
You can always generalize your classification scheme
to make it less specific; making it more specific
involves starting over

36

2 | Create Training Areas

Digitizing: drawing polygons around areas in the

image

Seeding: grows areas based on spectral

similarity to seed pixel

Using existing data: existing maps, field data

(GPS, etc.), high-resolution imagery

Feature space image training areas

37

Training Area methods

Method

Advantages
High degree of
control; can
incorporate
additional imagery

Disadvantages
May overestimate
class variance;
relatively time
consuming

Seeding

Auto-assisted; fast

May underestimate
class variance

Existing
data

Precise map
coordinates;
represents known
ground information

May overestimate
class variance; data
can be difficult &
costly to collect

Digitizing

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Digitizing
Selecting
ROIs

Alfalfa
Cotton
Grass
Fallow

39

Seeding

40

Training Areas Best Practices

Number of pixels > 100 per class

Individual training sites should be between 10 to

40 pixels

Sites should be dispersed throughout the image

Uniform and homogeneous sites

41

3 | Generate Training Areas Signatures

Signatures represent the collective spectral

properties of all the training areas defined for a
particular class

the most important step in supervised

classification

42

Types of Signatures

1.

Parametric: signature that is based on statistical

parameters (e.g., mean) of the pixels that are in
the training area (normal distribution assumption)

2.

Non-parametric: signature that is not based on

statistics, but on discrete objects (polygons or
rectangles) in a feature space image

43

Parametric Signatures

e.g., mean of the

pixels that are in
the training area

44

Parametric Signatures

e.g., mean of
the pixels that
are in the
training area

45

Non-Parametric Signatures

e.g., polygons
in a feature
space

46

4 | Evaluate and Refine Signatures

Attempt to reduce or eliminate overlapping, nonhomogeneous, non-representative signatures

Signatures should be as spectrally distinct as

possible

47

Some Signature Evaluation Methods

Ellipse evaluation (feature space)

Contingency matrices

Training area histograms

Signature plots

48

Ellipse Evaluation

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Contingency
Matrix
Contingency analysis produces a matrix showing the
percentage of pixels that are classified correctly in a
preliminary image classification of only the training
areas
It assumes that most of the training area pixels should
be assigned to their respective land-cover class
If a significant percentage of training pixels are
classified as another land-cover, it indicates that the
spectral signatures are not distinct enough to produce
an accurate classification of the entire image

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Contingency Matrix

Classifi ed
Land-cover Pine
Pine
101
Mixed Pine
24
Mixed Oak
4
Mixed Fir
7
Grass
0
Scrub
0
Agricult.
0
UnVeg
0
Column 136
Total
% Correct 74.3%

Mixed
Pine
96
213
23
25
0
0
0
0
357

Actual Landcover
Mixed Mixed
Oak
Fir
Grass
1
2
0
3
2
0
19
0
0
0
64
0
0
0
90
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
5
23
68
99

Scrub Agricult UnVeg

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
9
55
31
0
0
0
213
57
0
14
997
32
236
1109

59.7%

82.6%

96.9%

94.1%

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90.9%

90.3%

89.9%

Training Area Histograms

52

Signature Plots

53

Signature Refinement Methods

Refine training area boundaries

Add/delete training areas

Modify classification scheme/merge signatures

54

Merge Signatures

55

Merge Signatures

56

5 | Assign Pixels to Classes

Each pixel is independently compared to each

signature relative to the selected classification
criteria, or decision rule

Pixels that satisfy the criteria for a class signature

are assigned to that class

57

Classification Decision Rules

Parametric: image is classified based on a statistical

representation of the data derived from the training
area signatures; all image pixels are classified
Parametric classifiers are comprehensive; they assign every pixel
in an image to a class (regardless of how well that pixel fits into the
classification scheme)

Non-parametric: pixels are classified as objects in

feature space; only those pixels within the feature
space object are classified

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Non-Parametric Decision Rules

Parallelepiped

Feature space

59

Parallelepiped Classifier
The pixels values are compared to upper and lower
limits of each signature class (i.e., the min/max pixel
values in each band, or the mean of each band +/- 2
standard deviations)

60

Parallelepiped Classifier

leave them
unclassified
or classify
them using a
parametric
classifier

61

If the pixel value lies above the low

threshold and below the high threshold
for all n bands evaluated, it is assigned
to that class
When an unknown pixel does not
satisfy any of the criteria, it is assigned
to an unclassified category
We can visually see the twodimensional box, but this could be
extended to n dimensions.

Parallelepiped Classifier

Landsat TM training statistics for five

classes measured in bands 4 and 5
displayed as cospectral parallelepipeds.

The upper and lower limit of each

parallelepiped is 1, superimposed on a
feature space plot of bands 4 and 5.

Band 4: confusion between class 1 and 4

Band 5: confusion between class 3 and 4

Both band 4 and 5: separate all 5 classes

at 1

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Parallelepiped Classifier

Advantages: fast; good for non-normal

distributions; can limit classification to specific
land cover

Disadvantages: classes can include pixels

spectrally distant from the signature mean; does
not incorporate variability; not all pixels are
classified; allows class overlap

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Feature Space Classifier

Classifies pixels that fall within non-parametric
signatures identified in the feature space image not
used very often because it is difficult to accurately
create and evaluate non-parametric signatures

64

Feature Space Classifier

nonparametric
signatures
you decide
how they
are handled

65

Feature Space Classifier

Advantages: good for non-normal distributions and

multi-modal signatures (that include many land
cover features)

Disadvantages: feature space images are difficult

to interpret; allows class overlap

66

Parametric Decision Rules

Minimum distance

Maximum likelihood

67

Minimum Distance Classifier

Classifies pixels based on the spectral distance
between the candidate pixel and the mean value of
each signature (class) in each image band

68

Minimum Distance Classifier

mean value
of each class

69

Minimum Distance Classifier

The vectors (arrows)

represent the distance
from candidate pixels a
and b to the mean of
all classes in a
minimum distance to
means classification
algorithm
Pixel a Forest
Pixel b - Wetland

70

Minimum Distance Classifier

Advantages: fast; no unclassified pixels

Disadvantages: does not incorporate variability of
signatures

In most cases, a maximum likelihood classifier is a

better choice

71

Maximum Likelihood Classifier

Classifies pixels based on the probability that a
pixel falls within a certain class
If you know that the probabilities are not equal
for all classes, you can specify weight factors
For example, if you know that a large
percentage of a particular image area is
forested, you may want to weight that class
with a higher probability than other classes

72

Maximum Likelihood Classifier

Probability of an
unknown pixel being
one of the classes
If an unknown pixel has
brightness values within
the wetland region, it
has a high probability of
being wetland

73

Maximum Likelihood Classifier

pixel X would be
assigned to forest
because the probability
is greater for forest
than for agriculture.

Minimum distance
classifier - Agriculture

The ellipses represent

standard deviations
from the mean
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Maximum Likelihood Classifier

Advantages: most accurate; considers variability

Disadvantages: slow; relies heavily on normally

distributed signatures

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Example: Image to be Classified

76

Training Data Selection

77

Supervised Classification Results

78

Unsupervised classification, The

computer or algorithm automatically
group pixels with similar spectral
characteristics (means, standard
deviations, covariance matrices,
correlation matrices, etc.) into unique
clusters according to some statistically
determined criteria. The analyst then
re-labels and combines the spectral
clusters into information classes.

Supervised classification. Identify known

a priori through a combination of
fieldwork, map analysis, and personal
experience as training sites; the spectral
characteristics of these sites are used to
train the classification algorithm for
eventual land-cover mapping of the
remainder of the image. Every pixel both
within and outside the training sites is then
evaluated and assigned to the class of
which it has the highest likelihood of being
a member.

79

Final Thoughts on Supervised Classification

Accuracy vs. Precision

Land cover vs. land use

80

Accuracy & Precision

81

Accuracy & Precision

82

Accuracy & Precision

83

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84

Land Cover vs. Land Use

Land cover refers to the type of material present on the landscape (e.g.,
water, sand, crops, forest, wetland, human-made materials such as
asphalt).

Land use refers to what people do on the land surface (e.g., agriculture,
commerce, settlement).

85

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86

Hard vs. Fuzzy Classification

Supervised and unsupervised classification algorithms

typically use hard classification logic to produce a
classification map that consists of hard, discrete categories
(e.g., forest, agriculture).

Fuzzy classification logic, takes into account the

heterogeneous and imprecise nature (mix pixels) of the real
world.
Proportion of the m classes within a pixel (e.g., 10% bare soil,
10% shrub, 80% forest). Fuzzy classification schemes are not
currently standardized.

87

88

Pixel-based vs. Object-oriented Classification

Processing the entire scene pixel by pixel. This is commonly

referred to as per-pixel (pixel-based) classification.

Object-oriented classification techniques allow the analyst to

decompose the scene into many relatively homogenous image
objects (referred to as patches or segments) using a multiresolution image segmentation process

Object-oriented classification based on image segmentation is

often used for the analysis of high-spatial-resolution imagery
(e.g., 1 1 m Space Imaging IKONOS and 0.61 0.61 m Digital
Globe QuickBird)

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