POST CLASSICAL WESTERN EUROPE

FROM 476 TO 1453 C.E.

FROM PERIPHERAL
REGION TO NASCENT
GREAT POWER

QUEST FOR POLITICAL ORDER AFTER 476 CE

Germanic kingdoms

Visigoths dominated Spain, from 470's to early 8th century

Ostrogoths dominated Italy, the 5th century to 530's
Lombards invaded, ruled Italy, 550's to the mid-8th century
Franks, Burgundians controlled Gaul, Netherlands
Angles, Saxons, Jutes established kingdoms in Britain

Political Culture

Germans organized around tribes, families

Personal loyalty to king, local noble not state
Warrior aristocracy assisted royalty
Masses of Germans were free peasants with duties to king

Center of Europe shifted from Italy to northern area

Area in Northern France, Western Germany, Netherlands

Towns declined, only non-German structure was the church
Most Germans were Arian Christians but tolerated Catholics

EUROPE c. 526 600 C.E.

RISE OF THE FRANKS

The Franks
Settled in Belgium, Northern France, Western Germany
Developed group identity during the 3rd century C.E.
Politically inexperienced, little exposure to Roman society

Clovis
A strong military and political leader
Eliminated last vestiges of Roman authority in Gaul
Launched military campaigns against other Germanic
peoples
Built the most powerful and dynamic state in western
Europe

Clovis's conversion
Most Germans were Arian Christians
Converted to Arianism by St. Ulfias before migration
Hostile to Catholics but generally tolerant if taxes paid

The Franks converted to Roman Christianity

In Hoc Signet Vince in this sign conquer
Alliance with Catholics greatly strengthened the Franks

CHARLEMAGNE
The Carolingians

Merovingian leaders lost control after Clovis's death

Carolingians asserted authority, the early 8th century
Charles Martel

Mayor of the Palace, chief official under Merovingian kings

Stops Muslim invasion of Europe, 732 at Battle of Tours

Pepin becomes king, 751

Pope appointed Pepin as King of the Franks

Invaded Italy to save Pope from the Lombards
Pope allows Franks to reign as King of Italy
Pepin grants the area in Italy around Rome to Pope

Charlemagne (reigned 768-814 C.E.)

Charles Martel's grandson, founder of Carolingian empire

Control extended to northeast Spain, Bavaria, north Italy
Rulers of eastern Europe, southern Italy paid tribute

Administration

Capital city at Aachen (in modern Germany)

Relied on aristocratic deputies, known as counts
Used missi dominici to oversee local authorities

Charlemagne as emperor

Pope Leo III proclaimed Charlemagne emperor, 800

Coronation strained relations with Byzantine emperors

THE RISE OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE

BREAKUP OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE

Louis the Pious (re. 814-840)

Charlemagne's only surviving son, lost control of the

counts
His three sons divided the empire into three kingdoms, 843

Invasions

Muslims raided Mediterranean coasts

Conquered Spain, Sicily, Sardinia
Raided coasts of S. France, S. Italy

Magyars invaded from the east

Vikings invaded from the north

The Vikings

Scandinavian homelands - Norway, Denmark, and Sweden

Raided regions from Russia to Spain
Established colonies in Iceland, Greenland, Canada
Conquered parts of England, Ireland, Scotland, France

Outstanding seafarers

Fleets could go to interior regions via rivers

Attacked towns and villages; favorite targets were
Christian

VIKINGS, MAGYARS, AND ARABS

NEW REGIONAL STATES

England
Small Keltic, German kingdoms merged into larger realm
Fought Scandinavian raids
King Alfred (reigned 871-899) expanded to the north
Alfred's successors controlled England c. mid-10th century

Germany and Italy

After Carolingian empire, local lords took control
King Otto I (reigned 936-73) defeated Magyars in 955
Imposed authority in Central Europe

Led armies to support the papacy in Italy

Ruled Germany, Netherlands, Burgundy, Austria, Switzerland

Suzerain lords over Northern Italy, Slovenia, Czech lands
Otto's crowned emperor by pope in 962

France
Counts and other local authorities became local lords
Vikings settled in northern France
Nobles elect Counts of Paris as King to replace Carolingians

Spain and Southern Italy

Spanish Christian states in North warred against Muslim caliphs
Southern Italy patchwork of loyalties; eventually overrun by Normans

East Central and Northern Europe

Vikings establish three kingdoms: Denmark, Norway, Sweden
Poland and Hungary are large border states in east

EUROPE c. 1000 C.E.

FEUDAL SYSTEM
Lords and vassals

Lord owned land, needs soldiers

Trades land for service
Grants of land called fiefs

Vassal provided defense

Received livelihood from land
Vassals provided military equipment

Vassals owed lord:

Loyalty, obedience, respect, counsel

Military service when called into service

Lords often made smaller grant to others

Called sub-division of fief
Lowest, service owning noble was a knight

Church often made vassals of soldiers for defense

Church could hold land as a vassal to a lord
Church often held land in own right

Women could be vassals, own fiefs but not fight

Feudal politics

Multi-layered network of lord-vassal relationships

Political stability depended on discipline, control
Lords, knights often had conflicting loyalties

TWO FEUDAL STATES

FRANCE

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

MANORALISM: ECONOMIC FEUDALISM

Serfdom
Difference between peasants, serfs

Serfs as an intermediate category

Peasants were free, owned their own land

Serfs not free, could not own land
Serfs, peasants lived similar lives
Began under Romans
Diocletian bound people to occupations
Serfdom arose during invasions, marauders

Slaves, peasants frequently intermarried

Free peasants became serfs for protection

Serfs' obligations
Labor service and rents in kind
Could not move without permission
Serfs had right to work on land, pass job to heirs
Serfs often drafted as foot soldiers in feudal armies

Manors
Principal form of agricultural organization
Manor was a large estate controlled by lord
Many lords could execute serfs for serious misconduct
Manors were largely self-sufficient communities

Trade: luxuries, manufactured products, finished goods

Serfs had to work lords land first, before their own plots

ECONOMY OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE

Agriculture

Agricultural production suffered from repeated invasions

Small wooden plows of Mediterranean farmers did not work well in
the north

Heavy plows

Heavy plows appeared in 6th century, could turn soils

Common from 8th century, production increased
Cultivation of new lands, watermills, and rotating crops

A rural society

Agricultural surplus not enough to support large cities

Towns were few and sparsely populated

Trade

Trade, urban centers began to develop, 10th century

Trade arose in Mediterranean, North Sea, Black Sea

Population

In 200 C.E., European population stood at 36 million

In 400 C.E., 31 million
In 600 C.E., 26 million
In 800 C.E., edged up to 29 million
In 900 C.E., 30 million
By 1000 C.E., back to 36 mil

THE AGE OF FAITH

Post-Classical Western Europe as An Age of
Faith
Every aspect of life was dominated by the Church
Rulers were crowned by the Grace of God
Political rule viewed as divinely sanctioned
All Christians were expected to tithe to the church
Education, art dictated by Church ideals
Calendar organized by faith holidays
Fair prices, economic practices dictated by church

All answers to questions were dictated largely by faith

Law was largely dictated by religion
Serious matters submitted to Church for arbitration,
resolution

Popes, clergy held enormous power

Church held lands independent of many rulers

Church lands could not be taxed
Church lands were often enormously wealthy
Bishops could not be installed by secular rulers
Secular rulers appealed to Rome for mediation
Clergy could not be tried in secular courts
Popes could deprive kings of their thrones
Separate canon law for church

Social Hierarchy of the Church

Commoners could rise to leading positions

Social background often unimportant in church
Women in church had enormous influence

Symbols of the Post-Classical Age of Faith

The Cathedral
The Crusades
The Pilgrimage

CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY
The Franks and the Church
Franks viewed as protectors of the papacy
Charlemagne worked to spread Christianity
Reconquered parts of Spain from Muslims
Charlemagne forced Saxons to convert
Built churches, schools, monasteries

The spread of Christianity

Popes took an active roll in sending out missionaries
Pagan ways did not disappear immediately
Scandinavia, Baltic lands were last to convert
Pagan rituals often blended into Christianity
Cities, towns largely Christian but countryside weakly so

By 1000 C.E., western Europe was Roman Christianity

Irish, Mozarabic rites of Christianity accepted by Pope
Arian Christianity eliminated by Franks

THE PAPACY
Pope Gregory I (590-604 C.E.)

Organized defense of Rome against Lombards' menace

Reasserted papal primacy over other bishops
Strongly emphasized the sacrament of penance

The conversion of England

Gregory's missionary campaigns in western Europe

First converted English kings
By 800 C.E., England securely in the Roman church

Rise of Church as a Temporal Power

Popes claimed that the spiritual powers were superior to temporal

Italy lacked any great power; city-states constantly quarreled
German emperors at war with nobles; French kings too weak
Pope played one side off another, acquired lands in Italy

Many European bishops acquired lands, became part of feudalism

In Germany, owned 10% of the best lands
In Spain, Baltic spiritual military orders led wars on pagans

Papal Powers

Spiritual head of all Christians including aristocrats, royalty

Weapons included excommunication, interdict, canon law

Economically received tithe, freedom from taxation, owned great economic
wealth
Popes became head of reform movements
Abolished simony, insisted on celibacy of priests, reformed monasteries
Established College of Cardinals to elect popes not kings, mobs

Popes Gregory VIII and Innocent III defied, deposed kings

Popes launched crusades against Muslims, heretic Christians, some Italians

MONASTICISM
Origin

Christians practiced asceticism in deserts of Egypt, 2nd and 3rd century

Monastic lifestyle became popular when Christianity became legal

Monastic rules

St. Benedict (480-547 C.E.) provided a set of regulations

Virtues of Benedictine monks: poverty, chastity, and obedience
Western monastic rites differed from Eastern rites

Western rites emphasized work, prayer, service to the poor

Eastern rites were relatively isolated, dedicated to prayer but not outside
contacts

St. Scholastica (482-543 C.E.)

St. Benedict's sister, a nun

Adapted the Rule, and provided guidance for religious life of women

The roles of monasteries

Became dominant feature in social and cultural life of western Europe

Accumulated large landholdings but spread knowledge

Wealthy patrons donated land to monks for monasteries

Taught peasants, serfs techniques of farming
Cleared forested lands, planted them
Organized much of rural labor for agriculture

Provided a variety of social services

Inns and shelters for travelers and refugees

Orphanages, medical centers
Schools, libraries and scriptoria

Monks served needs of rural population

RISE OF REGIONAL STATES

The Holy Roman Empire

New Emperors

Investiture Contest

The Capetians

Descendants of Vikings who carved out a state in Normandy of France

Nominally subject to Carolingian and Capetian rulers, but acted independently

The British Isles

England: Normans to Plantagenets

Duke William of Normandy invaded England

Introduced Norman style of feudalism to England
Warred constantly with France for control of territory

Ireland and Scotland too disunited due to clan warfare at mercy of England

Italy

Northern Italy nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire

Church influence in Italy

The popes ruled a good-sized territory in central Italy

The church also influenced politics of northern Italy

Italian states

Hugh Capet, a minor and weak noble, was elected king in 987
In the next three centuries, Capetian kings gained power and wealth gradually
Spend most of energy asserting their power over regional powerful nobles

The Normans

Formerly, important church officials were appointed by imperial authorities

Pope Gregory VII ordered an end to the practice
Emperor Henry IV was excommunicated because of his disobedience

France

Otto of Saxony rose in northern Germany by the mid-10th century; Pope John XII proclaimed him emperor in 962
Later emperors warred alternately with powerful dukes, popes for influence in empire
Eventually emperorship becomes elected by seven most powerful imperial dukes, bishops
Smaller territorial states emerged, weakened centralizing efforts of the emperors

A series of prosperous city-states emerged by the 12th century

Normans conquered southern Italy, brought it to Roman Catholic Christianity

Christian and Muslim states in Iberia

Muslim conquerors ruled most of the peninsula, 8th-11th centuries

Christian kingdoms took the peninsula except Granada by late 13th cent

EUROPE, C. EARLY 13TH CENTURY

GROWTH OF THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY

Expansion of arable land

Population rises
Cleared forests, swamps
Lords encouraged such efforts

Improved farming techniques

Crop rotation methods

Use of fertilizer
Cultivation of beans increased
More domestic animals
Books on economy, agriculture

New tools and technology

Extensive use of watermills and heavy plows

Use of horseshoe and horse collar, increased land under
cultivation
3-plot rotation of planted land

New food supplies

Before 1000, European diet - grains

After 1000, more meat, dairy products, fish, vegetables,
legumes

Population growth

From 29 to 79 million between 800 C.E. and 1300 C.E.

REVIVAL OF TOWNS AND TRADE

Urbanization

Peasants, serfs, tradesmen flocked to cities and towns

Towns allowed serfs to acquire freedom if they stayed 1 year, 1 day

Local nobles allowed towns charters, rights for direct taxes
Towns ruled by urban elite usually from guilds, wealthy

Textile production

Northern Italian cities and Flanders became centers of wool textiles

Trade in wool products fueled economic development of Europe

Mediterranean trade
Trading City-States

Venice, Genoa were the most prominent but others such as Pisa, Amalfi
Wealth based on sea-power, luxury trade

Italians established colonies in Mediterranean, Black Sea

Conquered, settled cities, built factories and trade centers

Established trading alliances, signed treaties with many including Muslims

The Hanseatic League

Hansa - association of trading cities, controlled trade of N. Europe

German trading city-states made alliance; established factories in North, Baltic

Seas
Concluded treaties with many states; admitted key foreign cities to alliance
So powerful could resist kingdoms, made war on opponents
Trade is fish, grains, iron, cloth

Major European rivers, entrepots linked Hansa to the Mediterranean

Improved business techniques

Bankers issued letters of credit to merchants

Commercial partnerships for limiting risks of commercial investment

EUROPEAN CITIES

MEDIEVAL TRADE ROUTES

TRADING CITIES

SOCIAL CHANGES

The three estates

"Those who pray" clergy, spiritual estate

Ruling hierarchy: Popes, bishops, abbots
Common clergy: Monks, priests

"Those who fight" - feudal nobles, military estate

Royalty who ran a state
Land owning lords such as dukes, counts, princes
Lowest nobility with no land were knights

"Those who work" - mostly peasants and serfs

Peasants and Serfs
Those who lived in Towns (Burg = Burghers)

Guilds

Expansion of cities did not fit into feudal framework

Urban populations were increasingly able to resist feudal nobles

Chivalry

Established standards of quality for manufactured goods

Determined prices and regulated entry of new workers
Ran free cities as urban aristocracy

Independent cities

Not an estate in most countries

Grew to become middle class

Code of ethics and behavior for feudal nobles

Church directed chivalry toward Christian faith, piety

Rise of Estates General, Parliaments, and Assemblies

Kings had to govern with the consent of the nobles, clergy

Could not tax without their approval for which demanded rights
Eventually most rulers granted nobles, clergy rights to assemble, to debate
Also granted right to free peasants, citizens of towns who formed the commons
Many assemblies limited rights of rulers, became permanent bodies

GENDER ROLES IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE

Feminine Roles of the Day

The Virgin Mary was the ideal

Mother to children
Supports husband quietly, diligently
A patriarchal society but strong feminine roles

Public Role

Very limited as it was a males world

Female rulers were not unknown

ALWAYS differentiate between aristocracy, poor

Aristocratic Women

Equally a mans world but women had to work next to males for family to survive
Most women married due to pregnancy, married early in life, died young

Middle Class (Urban) women

Towns and cities offered fresh opportunities for women

Women worked in a wide range of occupations
Most guilds admitted women, and women also had their own guilds

The Church Women

Women were the womb to breed the heir; marriage politics taken very seriously
Roles public and private limited by convention and wealth to social roles and little else

Poor women

Generally seen as regents for son, grandson

If widowed, lost rights if remarried or when male came of age
Frequently seen in Spain, Scandinavia, England, Italy
Laws would not permit women to rule in France, Germany, Eastern Europe

Private Role

Women could own property in own right

Feudalism did not prohibit women from fighting but often they named a champion

As nuns women acquired social equality with men by renouncing sexuality

Abbesses, nuns could run monasteries, were educated, had great influence

Women of the Day

Eleanor, Countess Aquitaine, Duchess of Normandy, Queen of England

Most celebrated woman of her day

Inherited richest lands in Europe; married King of England
Supported troubadours, promoted good manners, refinement, arts, and romantic love

Blessed Hildegard von Bingen

Leading mystic, intellectual, advisors to bishops, popes

Revolutionized techniques in music

THE CHURCH AND LEARNING

Cathedral schools

Bishops, archbishops in France, Italy organized schools

Cathedral schools concentrated on liberal arts
Some offered instruction in law, medicine, and theology

Universities

Large cathedral schools developed into universities

Most students trained for church, bureaucratic jobs
Most students were from middle classes and not nobility
Student guilds and faculty guilds
Chief degree was theology

The influence of Aristotle

Increased contacts led to rediscovery of Aristotle

Obtained works from Byzantines, Muslims

Scholasticism: St. Thomas Aquinas

Scholasticism

System learning applied to Christianity

Intellectual and rational

St. Thomas Aquinas

Dominican scholar
Famous scholastic theologian
Wrote Summa Theologica

Sought to harmonize

Greek rationality
Aristotelian learning
Christianity

THE RELIGION OF THE MASSES

Popular Religion
Sacraments and Devotions

The most popular was the Eucharist

Devotion to saints for help
The Virgin Mary: the most popular saint
Saints' relics were esteemed
Pilgrimage: to Rome, Compostela, Jerusalem

People were superstitious

Devoted to many pagan rituals
Believed in witches

Reform Movements and Popular Heresies

Dominicans and Franciscans
Organized movements of non-cloistered religious
Dominicans worked primarily as teachers
Franciscans were primarily social workers

Worked directly with populace, needy, sick

Championed spiritual over materialistic values
Zealously combated heterodox movements

Popular heresy
Dominicans became the Churchs police or Inquisition
Movements of Waldensians and Cathars (Albigensians)

COLONIZATION AND CRUSADES

Atlantic and Baltic Colonization

The Vikings

Scandinavians turned to Atlantic, 9 th/10th centuries

Colonized Iceland and Greenland
Leif Ericsson settled in Canada (Vinland)
Established Dynasty of the Rus in Russia (Kiev)
Established states in Normandy, S. Italy, Holy Land

Christianity in Scandinavia

Kings of Denmark, Norway converted, 10 th c.

St. Olaf convinced the king, nobles to convert

Colonies in Iceland, Sweden, Finland also converted

Crusading Orders and Baltic Expansion

Germans launched mass settlement of Eastern lands

Allowed nobles to conquer, settle lands in east

Formed military-religious orders to assist
Launched crusades against pagan Baltic and Slavic peoples
Settled German peasants, serfs in lands

The Teutonic Knights were most active in the Baltic region

Baltic region was absorbed into Christian Europe by late 13th century
Settled German settlers in Estonia, Latvia, Prussia
Allied with the Hansa

The Reconquest (for Christianity) of Sicily and Spain

The conquest of Southern Italy, Sicily by Normans, 1040 1090

Seized lands from the Byzantines, Lombards, Muslims to create a powerful, modern state
Became ally, protector of the Popes; bitter enemies of the Byzantines

The reconquista of Spain

The reconquista began in 11th century after collapse of strong Muslim state
By 1150, conquered half peninsula: leading states were Leon-Castile, Aragon, Catalonia,
Portugal
By the 13th century, took almost all the peninsula except Granada

THE CRUSADES
The Turks

Arrived in Middle East in early 11th century; defeated Abbassids and

Byzantines
Seized much of Byzantine holdings in Anatolia, Muslim Holy Land

Pope Urban II

Byzantines asked West for help; Pope called for knights to seize Holy Land,
1095
Peter the Hermit traveled in Europe and organized a ragtag army
The campaign was a disaster for the crusaders

The first crusade

French, Normans organized a respectable military expedition, 1096

Jerusalem fell to the crusaders, 1099
Muslims recaptured Jerusalem, 1187

Later crusades

By the mid-13th century, launched five major crusades which all failed
4th crusade (1202-1204) conquered Constantinople, made Schism final

Consequences of the crusades

Facilitated exchange of goods between Muslims, Europe

Demands for silk, cotton textiles, and spices increased; spread sugar, citrus plants
Italian merchants sought opportunities for direct trade in Asian markets

European borrowed heavily from Muslim intellectual knowledge

Reacquired Aristotle, lost Greek classics

Borrowed Muslim science, mathematics, technology, paper skills
Borrowed Muslim architectural techniques
Helped produce a 12 th century European intellectual Renaissance

MAP OF THE CRUSADES